Harvard Project
for Asian and
International Relations Fax: 617.384.1158 hpair@hcs.harvard.edu
www.hpair.org
PO Box 380032 Cambridge, MA 02238 United States of America
Understanding Each Other: Education in 21st
Century Asia
By
Angela Y. Lin
I.
Introduction
“If language be the clothing of life, no child should be
sent naked into the world.”
-
Danie Fader
And so is true of
education.
Though societies have existed
for thousands of years without modern conceptions of education, the changing
nature of the world has given rise to education as it exists today. That is, education has become a more
structured and institutionalized process that often consists of years of
schooling or a lifetime of learning, and that serves as a means to different
ends, depending on the specific environments in which we live.
But while it may have
evolved into a more systematic experience over time, education still forms the
basis of much thought, communication, and interaction, and can be expected to
continually adapt to meet the needs of people.
As we encounter the challenges of the 21st century and negotiate the
complexities of the Information Age, these needs will only become more
demanding as we are influenced by technology and the greater interconnectedness
of nations and their peoples. Our new
knowledge societies require more flexibility in their educational structures to
adapt more readily to new styles of learning and teaching, new intellectual and
social needs, and new levels of skill development and productivity.
In looking at education in
Asia, we must ask whether the existing educational systems provide adequate
preparation for all people to succeed in the knowledge economy and assess the
corresponding opportunities for progress and change. Are Asians prepared for the knowledge society? Are our educational methods fostering
creativity and innovation? Is there a
distinct Asian approach to education?
To prepare us for fruitful
discussions at the conference, this briefing provides an overview of education
in Asia and some of the challenges that lie ahead. The highlighted issues and questions are intended to spark new
ideas to be shared with the rest of the delegates. In this century, the need for quality in education becomes more
important than ever. Before reading on,
consider the following question: What
is your vision for education in your
country? During the course of the
workshop, we will try to help you cultivate that vision.
II. Where Are We Now?
Assessing the
Importance of Education
In a knowledge society, education is a necessary tool for development in the social, political, and economic spheres. People of all ages need to be given the proper preparation and practical skills to ensure that they do their part to help their country survive in an increasingly sophisticated and competitive world stage. They must know how to negotiate their lives in the context of a changing society, and stand to benefit from an understanding of themselves as well as others. Simply put, education is the vehicle through which people can become productive citizens and thus actively participate in their societies.
An Overview of
Education in Asia
Asian countries are at varying stages of educational development, ranging from the still-developing systems such as that of China, India, and the Philippines, to the more sophisticated systems of Japan and Singapore. Because of these disparities, it is difficult generalize about the state of Asian education as a whole. Nevertheless, a few themes do exist that characterize the region’s attitude towards education. In particular, international and regional conferences have shown that differences and commonalties among countries, rather than being a source of intellectual conflict, are a source of enormous interest. Country and cultural diversity translate into incentives for sharing experiences in an environment of mutual learning between participants, and encourage the discovery of common concerns through discussion. In addition, countries seem to favor regional cooperation and the sharing of experiences as a means of attaining quality education for everyone and of facing the challenges of globalization.[1] As the idea of a knowledge economy matures, countries view interdependence as a prerequisite to international understanding, and cross-border cooperation as a beneficial way to shape education for the future.
Beyond these major themes,
there are no sweeping generalizations to be made about education in Asia. We can, however, use the state of curriculum
reform as a specific means of comparing education across many of the countries
of South and Southeast Asia. Appendix I serves
as an overview of such reforms and is by no means exhaustive. It is meant to
provide a backdrop for further discussion online and at the conference. You are
encouraged to expand upon these observations and apply them to analyses of
other countries in Asia.
Please now refer to Appendix II – Country Comparisons[2] for an
in-depth look at education in China, India, Japan, Philippines, and
Singapore. During the workshop, you
will be expected to have a basic understanding of the variety of educational systems
in Asia and the philosophies upon which they are based.
Challenges to
Education
It is easy enough to say that education is an important
priority for everyone, but it is another task to make sure that everyone
actually has access to it. A variety of
challenges, including cultural, economic, and political constraints, can easily
limit access to education. While some
developing countries lack solid educational structures, others simply suffer
from economic disparities, cultural differences, or political unrest. The noticeable gap between rich and poor,
rural and urban, and haves and have-nots; the historical consequences of
colonization; and the results of governmental conflict; often translate into a
story of those with privilege and those without. Moreover, the proliferation of modern technology and the growing
presence of the so-called ‘digital divide’ has only served to exacerbate such
inequalities. Such circumstances call
for new and innovative solutions. Think
about some of the challenges that citizens of your country may face, and
whether there are ways to increase access to education.
III. What Can
We Do?
With a better
understanding of education and curricular reform as it exists in Asia, we now move
on to examine potential tools for achieving our vision of education for the
future. In preparation for the
discussion and interactive exercises that will take place over the course of
the workshop, we shall now consider two main challenges that arise when
tackling the issue of education in 21st century Asia: education reform and the relationship
between technology and education.
Education Reform
Though the fundamental
need for education never disappears, the exact goals of education vary with
time and circumstance. A country’s
educational system is therefore subject to continuous transformation in order
to adapt to these changes. As the
countries and citizens of Asia begin to embrace the knowledge economy, they
must also recognize the multitude of challenges posed by the changing nature of
education in the 21st century in order to implement effective
solutions. This section of the briefing
is designed to provide an overview of the most common types of education
reforms, their potential pros and cons, and some of the hurdles faced when
implementing change.
Standards-Based/Curriculum Reform
Education reform can occur anywhere from the national, local, and institutional levels to the classroom level. One of the most widely implemented reforms comes in the shape of standards. There are two types of standards: content and performance. Though performance standards are important as measures of achievement, carefully designed content standards form the core of quality education because they provide clear learning and teaching expectations. Content standards attempt to shape learning from both the top down and the bottom up by identifying specific concepts that are expected knowledge of every subject and at every level of education, and are thus closely tied to curricula reform.
Just as the educational goals of preparation and intellectual development are continually defined and redefined, so exists an on-going preoccupation for educators in all countries to develop and reform school curricula. The dawn of the new millennium has given a sense of renewed urgency to government efforts on the local and national levels to provide all citizens with access to a basic, quality education. In addition to improving and widening access to secondary education, educational authorities are being called upon for guidance and leadership in the area of curriculum reform. Curriculum and content standards-based reform thus usually exist (or are implemented) in general as well as in specific areas as math, science, history, and language arts, and include added expectations as students progress from elementary through to secondary and higher education. Some countries have nation-wide standards while others have standards that vary by state or locale. The main issue thus occurs in the actual implementation of reform, since great oversight is necessary to make certain that content standards are followed, and great care must be taken when designing curricula. Ideally, by following a curriculum that is based on rich, demanding, and rigorous standards, teachers, students, parents, administrators, test-developers, and text authors will share a set of common, well-defined goals and are therefore better prepared for progress in the classroom.
Content standards are commonly evaluated through student assessment. The type of assessment given usually depends on the specific objectives one has in mind. In choosing an assessment strategy, educators often look to those that match their nation’s educational goals, target the content standards that need to be assessed, and allow the kinds of interpretations education officials wish to make about student performance.[3] By choosing the right form of assessment, administrators are able to supervise school progress, allocate money efficiently, and thus capitalize on the benefits associated with student assessment.
Historically speaking, the first attempt at large-scale student assessment took place in 1904 when Alfred Binet used his theories of intelligence testing to develop a scale for identifying mentally retarded children in France. The goal was to identify such children so that they might be afforded special instruction and attention.[4] Almost a century later, as accountability becomes an increasingly significant issue in education all over the world, evaluative tests targeted towards the general student population are becoming more prevalent. Although students can be assessed in a variety of ways, testing, in particular, is definitely on the rise. This is due not only to the increased call for accountability, but also because of the benefits it provides (personal, practical, and economic) for students, teachers, parents, schools, and states.
Testing is often used for three basic purposes: ranking, student placement, and the improvement of learning, instruction, or an institution.[5] The main benefit of testing is that its results are observable. Ideally, it can help place students in appropriate levels that will enhance their learning process; help teachers better allocate their time and understand specific student needs; provide parents with a measure of school quality; indicate individual school progress; and show states the most efficient methods of school expenditure. Of course, these goals are not always met through testing alone; they are best attained when assessment is coupled with meaningful content standards and concrete goals.
Although beneficial, testing must be administered with caution.[6] Educators must be aware of the negative consequences of student assessment, especially with regard to three issues: testing among the primary grades, high-stakes testing for graduation, and incentive-based assessment programs. For example, in the United States, students are typically tested for the first time between ages 5 and 7 in an effort to gauge their readiness for school or their preliminary knowledge of basic skills. Assessing students at such an early age, however, especially with standardized testing instruments, runs the risks of lowered self-esteem, unnecessary and incorrect labeling, and distortion of curriculum.[7] Similarly, high-stakes (graduation-dependent) testing runs the risk of distorting curricula at the secondary school level. When tests play a significant role in school accountability and in grade advancement they often become the school curriculum. In the end, any sort of educational reform poses costs and benefits to those it affects. An important question then remains – Do the benefits of testing greatly outweigh the costs, and thus make the potential risks associated with student assessment worthwhile?
Incentive-Based Reform
Incentive-based reform is another popular policy instrument, especially for those who believe that a school’s financing should be linked to the quality of education provided. Incentives are used to hold schools, teachers, and administrators accountable for performance and quality, and are often granted on the basis of test results. Among the most common incentives are public recognition and monetary rewards. Such rewards are given for individual teacher merit, student merit, successful schools, high-performing school districts, and even school support staff.
Though economic incentives have been shown to lead to gains in performance, they can also lead to corruption among students and teachers. [8] One of the most readily observable negative consequences of testing is linked to incentive-based reform. Such programs can prove detrimental to teacher morale and student achievement. Teachers held directly accountable for student results often succumb to temptations of “teaching to the test,” while students often end up learning the test curriculum rather than the designated one. These risks must therefore be taken into account when deciding whether or not to implement incentive-based reform. A possible solution is to rely less heavily on testing and either tie funding to school success rates (such as graduation rates) or have the power to reform (or even close down) certain schools deemed inadequate.
Offering incentives and disincentives in the form of recognition (both positive and negative) and rewards is an effective approach to holding schools accountable for the academic performance of their students, and thus answers the increased call for accountability.[9] Such programs can be used to improve school management and provide motivational incentives for schools to improve their quality of education. If school funding and resources depend directly on student progress and achievement, then schools are more likely to focus on such goals. To proponents of school-choice, public schools are seen as a monopoly, and private and charter schools are helpful competition. In terms of assessment, testing serves as a type of competition that can make for increased quality of education. Schools that have negative test results will have more incentive to undertake improvement programs if held accountable to standards and viewed in comparison to other schools’ performance. Thus, incentive programs serve as observable signals that help schools compete efficiently with one another, such as they would in a choice-based school system.
Equity Reform
Equity reform often refers to the idea of ‘school choice.’ The term itself refers to the idea of giving parents the power and opportunity to choose the school their child will attend, and therefore translates into the potential for better educational opportunities. This ‘market’ for schools is expected to maximize consumer utility for education and fosters competition that is intended to increase school quality.[10]
A variety of school choice programs exist:
School vouchers
School vouchers (a type of full school choice program) provide parents with a portion of the public educational funding allotted for their child to attend school, and allow them to use those funds to attend the school of their choice. It gives them the fiscal authority to send their child to the educational institution that best suits their child, whether it is a religious or parochial school, another private school, or a neighborhood or magnet public school. These programs empower the family and, in so doing, infuse consumer accountability into the traditional public schools system.
Private scholarship programs
Private scholarship programs provide low-income children with the same educational opportunities that wealthier families enjoy by paying a portion of the tuition for a child to attend a private scholarship school. To qualify, the applicant usually needs to be from a family that qualifies for the federal free-or reduced-price lunch program and living in the district which the program has been set up to serve. In the United States, student-sponsor programs, boarding school programs, religiously affiliated school aid programs, and community scholarship programs have been providing parents choices for years. Examples abound of organizations, individuals, and archdioceses helping out needy children through a variety of programs, but a common thread runs throughout – putting the child above the system and providing the children of all families the educational opportunity already enjoyed by those with wealth. The private scholarship program thus provides opportunities for quality education where none existed before by making the excellence of the private sector available to families of lower socio-economic status, and therefore enhances students’ likelihood of having productive and successful futures.
Charter schools
Operating on the principles of choice, accountability, and autonomy, charter schools provide unique services, or deliver services in ways that the traditional public schools do not offer. They are independent public schools, designed and operated by educators, parents, community leaders, educational entrepreneurs and others, and are often sponsored by designated local or state educational organizations who monitor their quality and integrity, but allow them to operate freed from the traditional bureaucratic and regulatory red tape that plagues public schools. Freed from such micromanagement, charter schools design and deliver programs tailored to educational excellence and community needs. Because they are schools of choice, they are held to the highest level of accountability – consumer demand.
The idea of school choice
re-asserts the rights of the parent and the best interests of the child over
the convenience of the system, infuses accountability and quality into the
system, and provides educational opportunity where none existed before. However, though such programs encourage
parental involvement and high expectations by giving parents the option to
educate their children as they see fit, they also create a socio-economic
division between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots.’ In Asia and elsewhere, children are usually assigned to a school
according to the location of their home and the demarcation of a school
district. In some countries, however,
people of means already have school choice.
Those who are wealthy and/or well-connected have either the privilege of
moving to an area where school quality is high, or they can choose to enroll
their child in a private school. In
most of these countries, parents without such means simply have no choice but
to send their children to the assigned school, regardless of school-quality
considerations. Policies such as school
vouchers remedy this problem to a certain degree, but are still mostly in the
experimental stages.[11]
Studies indicate that public schools do react to competition by offering better schooling and reducing costs. Increased competition results in significant improvements in student test scores, educational attainments, and wages. Not surprisingly, parents with greater choice are generally more involved in their child’s schooling and prefer a higher standard of achievement for both their children (academic achievement) and their chosen school (standards and discipline).[12] Overall, however, is school choice a favorable equity reform?
Improving Teacher Quality
Teacher reforms are usually focused on improving the professional quality of schoolteachers. Such improvements come mainly in the form of better teacher education and preparation, increased standards in teacher assessment, licensing, and hiring, and accountability requirements that are often tied to student performance and school funding. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses suggest that policy investments in the quality of teachers may be related to improvements in student performance. Quantitative analyses indicate that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and language status. Analysis suggests that policies adopted by states regarding teacher education, licensing, hiring, and professional development may make an important difference in the qualifications and capacities that teachers bring to their work.
In addition, it is important to create incentives for people to enter the teaching profession, provide training and working conditions that encourage experienced teachers to serve as mentors to younger colleagues and give feedback to one another, offer salaries that are competitive with those of professionals in other fields, and accord teachers the same level of respect as other professionals. Firstly, if teaching is viewed as an attractive (and/or potentially lucrative) career, then it will more than likely draw the best and the brightest into competition for such jobs. Teachers can then only benefit from others’ respect for their professional autonomy. Secondly, fostering mentoring relationships will help the inexperienced teachers develop personally and professionally by learning from the experienced. Also, if teachers spend fewer hours in the classroom and more time on class preparation, intellectual pursuits, and positive interaction with other teachers, they are likely to be better teachers during those hours they do spend in the classroom.
Though improving teacher quality is an important part of improving student education, the problem with such top-down measures as accountability requirements is that they often distort teacher incentives. By imposing increasingly stringent requirements such as more rigorous testing and according personal responsibility for standardized test results, disincentives are created as teachers are drawn away from established curriculum, and administrators focus on numbers rather than on improving individual teacher quality.
Technology and Education
With the advent of the Internet and the ever-expanding applications for technology in everyday life, it should come as no surprise that technology has and will continue to alter the ways in which our students learn for decades to come. The following overview serves to highlight the current and potential uses for technology in the context of 21st century education, and is intended to provide you with basic knowledge of the issues involved with technology and education. In our attempts to maximize its effectiveness and pursue new possibilities for the knowledge economy, however, it is just (if not more) important to be aware of both the consequences and the benefits of technology on education. The challenge is in figuring out how best to take advantage of technological advancements.
One of the main goals of education is to help students gain the knowledge and skills to address both routine and novel problems and tasks outside of the classroom setting. People solve problems and accomplish tasks drawing on the resources that they have available, such as their personal physical and mental resources. They also draw on the knowledge and skills of other people, information from books, and tools. In recent years, information technology has become a routine tool for many people working to accomplish complex tasks.[13]
Information technology (IT) affects education in three distinct ways: 1) IT is a subject matter; 2) IT provides tools that are useful in all school subject areas; and 3) IT can be used to help students learn. Therefore, when we discuss what kinds of technology to buy, how it should be installed, what type of training should be implemented, and who is available to teach in schools, it is important to be clear about what kinds of uses we have in mind.
Computer and Information Science
In this sense, technology itself is the subject. Computer programming is the main activity. Before the personal-computer software industry developed, using a computer meant learning to program it. Today, this is a specialty area of study for students with particular interests in technology. Knowledge of computer science will be important particularly for those interested in entering this field of study. For most students, the following two uses of IT are more directly applicable.
Computer as Tool
The computer is a useful and versatile mind tool. It can be used to help solve the problems and accomplish the tasks that are at the center of many different academic disciplines. Computer tools for education can be divided into three categories:
1) Generic Tools
Software programs such as word processors, spreadsheets, database managers, and graphics packages cut across many disciplines. A student who learns to use these tools can apply them in almost every area of intellectual work. The Internet (which includes e-mail and the Web) is a set of generic tools that are proving useful even to students in elementary school. Generic tools – generally packaged with computers or purchased by schools as site licenses – are relatively inexpensive and widely available. They are also used by teachers to maintain gradebooks, archive exam questions, prepare individualized education plans for students with disabilities, word-process lesson plans and handouts, and deliver overhead presentations. When used in these capacities, generic tools provide practical skills and make classrooms more efficient.
2) Subject-specific Tools
These are tools designed for a particular discipline. Examples include hardware and software to aid in musical composition and performance, mechanical drawing and graphics design, digital animation, and digital film production. These special-purpose tools tend to be expensive. In schools, they are generally found in special programs at the high school or collegiate level.
3) Learner-centered Tools
These tools focus on "learning to learn." Recently, multimedia and Web authoring software has been used for this purpose. Students practice problem-solving and creative strategies as they use the software to create programs and presentations. Learner-centered software tools are not particularly expensive. The main limitation to this use of technology is professional development: Teachers need to be proficient with both technology and project-based learning strategies to incorporate computer-based learner-centered activities on a regular basis.
Information Technology-Assisted Learning
This section includes three different uses of IT to directly support learning. Computer-assisted learning (CAL) is the interaction between a student and a computer system designed to help the student learn. Computer-assisted research is the use of IT as an aid to doing library and empirical research. Distance learning is the use of telecommunications designed to facilitate student learning.
1) Computer-Assisted Learning
Over the past 40 years, CAL has been given many different names, such as computer-based instruction and computer-assisted instruction. The CAL name is intended to emphasize "learning" rather than just "instruction." CAL includes drill and practice, tutorial, simulation, and a variety of virtual reality environments that are designed to help students learn. Early CAL programs were essentially electronic versions of student worksheets. Current CAL software is highly interactive, able to track and respond to student answers with new problems.
The most comprehensive CAL environments are so-called "integrated
learning systems" (ILS) that include tutorials, tests, reference
materials, and student tracking software tied together on a computer network.
An ILS represents a major commitment for a school in terms
of funding and instructional program.
2) Computer-assisted Research
There are two major categories of computer-assisted research in schools. First, there is the use of CD-ROM materials and electronic databases on the Web. Although there are legitimate concerns about monitoring and advising students as they explore online, computer-assisted research empowers students and teachers with increased access to information. With the growing use of electronic databases to store information, skill in electronic searching is becoming a basic intellectual tool.
A special type of computer-assisted research is the use of computerized instrumentation to gather data. Microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) tools such as temperature probes allow students to record data that can be imported directly into spreadsheets or other software for analysis.
3) Distance Learning
Distance learning is rapidly growing in use and importance. Through the use of telecommunications, students and instructors can be connected in a two-way audio and a one-way or two-way video network that allows real-time interaction. The Web is increasingly being used to provide the needed connectivity. Often such instruction is asynchronous (not real-time), making use of videotapes or materials stored on a computer. This adds to the convenience for the student. In a Web-based course, students interact with each other and the instructors—students may do group projects—even though they may be located at different places around the world. In addition, CAL and distance education can provide students access to courses that are not available in a teacher-delivered mode in their schools.
As distance education continues to evolve, here are current topics of debate. Feel free to use them as a springboard for thoughtful discussion and/or further research.
w Supportive infrastructure. How can educators create an environment for
distance learners that provides the support that they require to succeed?
w Quality faculty development/support. Teaching at a distance is different from
traditional teaching. How can faculty be best prepared?
w Student development. Students need new and different skills to succeed in
distance education.
w Telling the truth. Because of the long-standing bias against distance education,
practitioners must be scrupulously honest in their portrayal of opportunities and
benefits of distance education programs.
w Education through a variety of means (multiple options). How can a blend of
technologies and programs benefit the student?
w Competitive education market. Because of the proliferation of
telecommunications- and web-based programs, distance education is available
from a wide variety of providers, creating much competition in a field formerly defined by geographic regions.
w Curriculum-driven technology decisions. The focus is shifting away from available technology and towards content as the linchpin for distance education delivery mechanism decisions.
w Focus on faculty, staff and learner development. There is a growing recognition that distance education programs must prepare everyone involved in the enterprise for maximum efficacy.
Goals for Information Technology in
Education
Before implementing any of the above information technology, schools must first develop a concrete set of goals for selecting, using, and evaluating the types of IT that will be most valuable and effective for its students. There are two common methods for establishing IT goals. The first approach is to develop or adopt specific standards for IT use. The second approach is to examine how students might take advantage of appropriate technology tools in different real-life situations.
Standards
Just as schools formulate a curriculum based on content standards, the introduction of information technology into the classroom setting requires that they also formulate standards for its use. One way of doing this is similar to the idea of performance standards – that is, establishing a guideline of expected achievement according to grade level. Following is an example of such standards for students in grades 2, 5, 8, and 12 drawn from the United States’ National Education Technology Standards (NETS) project.[14] As you read through them, consider whether or not these standards are compatible to those established in your own country.
|
1. Use input devices (e.g., mouse, keyboard, remote control) and output devices (e.g., monitor, printer) to successfully operate computers, VCRs, audio tapes, telephones, and other technologies. 2. Use a variety of media and technology resources for directed and independent learning activities. 3. Use technology resources (e.g., puzzles, logical thinking programs, writing tools, digital cameras, drawing tools) for problem solving, communication, and illustration of thoughts, ideas, and stories. The Capable Technology-Using
Student Completing Grade 5: 1. Use general-purpose productivity tools and peripherals to support personal productivity, to remediate skill deficits, and to facilitate learning throughout the curriculum. 2. Use technology tools (e.g., multimedia authoring, presentation, Web tools, digital cameras, scanners) for individual and collaborative writing, communication, and publishing activities to create knowledge products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. 3. Use telecommunications efficiently and effectively to access remote information and communicate with others in support of direct and independent learning and for pursuit of personal interests. The Capable Technology-Using
Student Completing Grade 8: 1. Collaborate with peers, experts, and others using telecommunications and collaborative tools to investigate curriculum-related problems, issues, and information and to develop solutions or products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. 2. Design, develop, publish and present products (e.g., Web pages, video tapes) using technology resources that demonstrate and communicate curriculum concepts to audiences inside and outside the classroom. 3. Use content-specific tools, software and simulations (e.g., environmental probes, graphing calculators, exploratory environments, Web tools) to support learning and research. The Capable Technology-Using
Student Completing Grade 12: 1. Collaborate with peers, experts, and others to contribute to a content-related knowledge base by using technology to compile, synthesize, produce, and disseminate information, models, and other creative works. 2. Routinely and efficiently use on-line information resources to meet needs for collaboration, research, publications, communications, and productivity. 3. Identify capabilities and limitations of contemporary and emerging technology resources and assess the potential of these systems and services to address personal, lifelong learning, and workplace needs. |
Technology as a Tool
Implementing technology in education obviously goes beyond establishing guidelines – schools must move on to considerations of how technology will actually be used in the classroom, and must thus consider both first and second-order applications of technology.
Earlier, we examined the use of computers as a classroom tool – a tool which has first and second-order applications. A first-order application is, in essence, the amplification of an existing practice. Students can utilize computers to do tasks that were previously completed either by hand or with non-computer equipment. For example, students can use word processors to write essays. Early word processors were much like electric typewriters but had advantages in terms of editing and storing documents. They were an amplification of the typewriter. The transition from typing to word processing required little formal training.
A second-order application, in contrast, moves beyond amplification to create new ways of working that are above and beyond what could be done before. In this type of application, students are able to do much more than was possible without technology. Continuing our example, we see that the design, graphics, and typesetting involved in desktop publishing represent a huge range of knowledge and skills beyond those of mere typing. Computers make it possible for a student to carry out all of these tasks, but it requires talent, learning, and long experience to become a desktop publishing specialist. Desktop publishing is a movement far beyond using the computer as a typewriter. Second-order applications thus have the potential for creating substantial change and improvement in classroom settings.
When computers were first introduced into the classroom, they were employed as first-order applications. Students learned to use computers to do things that they had already learned to do by hand, such as write papers, make calculations, or complete worksheets. However, it soon became apparent that students could move beyond first-order applications to use technology in much the same way as adults for research, creation, and communication. Coupled with the establishment of concrete standards for the use of information technology, the ability to take full advantage of technology in a given (i.e. classroom) situation creates great potential for educational practices of the future.
People and Tools
The key issue in the instructional use of technology is distinguishing what students should learn to do mentally; versus what they should learn to do assisted by simple aids such as books, pencil, and paper; versus what they should learn to do assisted by more sophisticated aids such as calculators, computers, and other IT. This much seems clear: Thinking, problem posing (deciding what problems to solve), and understanding the human condition and values can be done better by people than by machines. The role of information technology is to support these skills. IT is of steadily increasing importance in solving problems and accomplishing tasks in business, industry, research, and government. A person who knows how to make effective use of IT has many advantages over a person who does not. Keep the afore-mentioned models and applications in mind as we carry our discussion online and into the workshop. For more information, refer to the Resources section of this briefing.
IV. What Lies
Ahead?
Though the challenges of educational reform and incorporating technology into learning are weighty, one of the greatest challenges that lies ahead is that of globalization. In the words of the Honorable Jacques Hallak, Assistant Director-General of UNESCO and Director of the International Bureau of Education,
“The globalization of economies and societies raises a new challenge, requiring the adaptation of educational content to meet both national demand and international concerns.”
How are we, as individual countries, to negotiate the variety of actors and influences – both national and international – involved in the delivery of education? How are we, as individual citizens, to reconcile the educational philosophies of our own cultures with those of other nations? Recent trends indicate the emergence of new concepts and norms for educational content. As modern advancements, media, and technology continue to make it possible for people to view each other, the tendency to judge countries according to international standards will only become stronger.
“In the future, new strategies will best be discovered collaboratively across countries. Taking full respect of the diversity of cultures, languages and country's education systems, the search will not be for uniformity but the outcome will be enriched by understanding the experiences of others.”[15]
There is no question that as interaction among countries increases, education in Asia will need to rise to new standards in order to provide its citizens with the necessary background and preparation to gain entrance and, more importantly, to succeed in the knowledge economy of the 21st century. But how do we determine these standards? What constitutes the ‘necessary background and preparation’? How do we go about improving our educational systems? Should we be concerned with international standards or should we focus on local development? Is there a trade-off between the two? What can we do to achieve our visions of education for the future, and in the process, learn to better understand each other?
The scope of these questions is indeed broad, and you are not expected to have already come up with solutions. With the premise that there are no easy answers, this briefing outlined potential tools for shaping education in Asia that will serve as a springboard for discussion as we carry this conversation online and into the workshop sessions.
V. Appendices
Appendix I –
Curriculum Reform[16]
Let us examine the extent
of curriculum reform in the following countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives,
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.
w Some countries are restructuring their curricula after several years of following an unchanged curriculum, as in the case of Vietnam and Thailand which are preparing to introduce major reform. Such initiatives may be the result of major socio-political and/or economic change. These countries are in the process of gradually redesigning their entire curricula; establishing new aims, purposes and goals; and redefining content. To assist them in this process they are interested in international experiments on methods of curriculum design and implementation, and in identifying the latest trends and ideas prevailing in the field of educational content.
w Some countries such as Sri Lanka are in the process of introducing reforms. Most others (for e.g. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Nepal and the Philippines) have undertaken important curricular reform in recent years in order to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their education systems, and respond more adequately to the needs of their societies. These countries are now consolidating or reviewing their reforms. They are concerned about the production of relevant didactic materials and how to use them to the best advantage in the classroom. Pre- and in-service training of teachers and school inspectors is a major priority. Some countries are engaged in an evaluation and monitoring phase and are searching for methods and tools to assess the outcome of the reforms implemented.
w A country such as Malaysia has indicated an
established system of ongoing curricular renewal and adaptation in order to
incorporate new areas of content and teaching methods as demands arise,
particularly in response to the new challenges of the twenty-first century
(i.e. globalization, scientific progress, technological evolution,
environmental awareness).
w While the dominant structure of
curriculum development among the participant countries is centralized, there
seems to be a genuine concern for both decentralization and wider participation
in curriculum change. There are convergent signals indicating political will to
mobilize non-institutional actors – such as teacher unions, parent
associations, representatives of the private sector – to participate in the
design and implementation of curricula.
Appendix II - Country
Comparisons[17]
China
Principles
and general objectives of education
In general terms, education in the People’s Republic
of China must serve the socialist modernization drive, be integrated with
production and labor, and foster builders and successors with all-round
development in moral, intellectual and physical education.
The Chinese government holds persistently
the idea that education is the essential pre-condition for the all-round
development of mankind. Article 46 of the Constitution of People’s Republic of
China stipulates that all citizens have the right and obligation to pursue
education. Article 9 of the Education Law (1995) stipulates that the citizens
have equal opportunities of education regardless of nationality, race, sex,
occupation, social conditions and religious belief. The Law on Compulsory
Education (1986) stipulates that the State, society, schools and families
guarantee the right to education of school-age children and adolescents.
Current educational priorities and concerns
Generally
speaking, educational reform fails to meet the needs of the modernization
drive. The existing education system, especially the systems of school
operation, management and investment, and enrollment and employment regimes of
universities still lag behind the demands of the economic reform. The education
system and operational mechanism can hardly accommodate the needs arising from
the establishment of the socialist market economy.
The principal
objectives of educational development in China up to the year 2010 are: (a)
education attainment for all people should be markedly better, and a basic
socialist education framework shaped according Chinese characteristics and
oriented to serve the needs of the twenty-first century, should be put into
place; (b) nine-year compulsory education should become universal and there
should be no more illiterates among youth and adults; (c) senior secondary
education should be expanded; (d) vocational education and adult education
should be developed more energetically; (e) the percentage of people with
higher education should be close to that of developed countries; (f) education
at various levels should enjoy better conditions under which operate schools,
and both the quality and efficiency of education should be improved.
The specific goals
for educational development are as follows:
·
The remaining
illiterates should become literate and a functional literacy program should be
launched to reduce the illiteracy rate among youths and adults to about 1%, so
as to increase adult literacy rate to over 90%.
·
A nine-year compulsory
education should be achieved in regions where 90-95% of the population live;
kindergarten enrollment rate should reach 50%. Primary schools should have an
enrollment of 130 million, while junior secondary schools should have an
enrollment at 63 million, with an enrollment rate of about 95%.
·
Regions following the
eight-year primary program and junior secondary schools shall gradually
introduce the nine-year compulsory program; regions where the school admission
age is 7 years or above shall strive to lower the admission age to 6 years.
·
Enrollment at various
types of senior secondary schools shall be
increased to about 34 million, with an enrollment rate of over 50%.
·
The number of students
enrolled in higher education institutions should be increased to around 9.5 million, with an average of 700 university
students per 100,000 people, and with a gross enrollment rate of about 11%.
Post-graduate programmes should accommodate 300,000 students and over 100,000
people should be awarded master’s and doctoral degrees of every year.
·
Pre-service and
in-service training, job-transfer training and continuing education should be
further developed, so as to establish a comprehensive, modern system of social
education and lifelong education, adapted to the requirements arising from the
socialist market economy, employment pressure and increasingly greater
sophistication of the people.
The former
education system, organized according a planned economy, played a positive role
in the past. But it can no longer adapt itself to the new environment, as a
result of the establishing of a socialist market economy. It is, therefore,
essential that the reform of the education system should be accelerated, in
order to make it compatible with the requirements of the new environment. Over
the past two years, the ongoing reforms of the economic, political, scientific
and technological systems in China has had enormous impact on the education
system.
The requirements,
as well as the impact on education, from the adoption of a socialist market
economy in China, are primarily reflected in the following aspects:
·
Reform of the
educational management system, by replacing highly centralized with
decentralized management under the macro-guidance of the central government.
·
Reform of the school
system, by replacing the previous system under which the government was solely
responsible for schools with a system under which the various sectors of
society participate in school administration to complement government’s
efforts.
·
Reform of the education
financing system, by transforming the single funding source (the government)
into diversified sources for education financing with a view to gradually
establishing a system under which the principal source, namely state
appropriations, is supplemented by other channels of education financing.
·
Reform of educational
philosophy, contents and methods.
·
Reform of the school
management system, by ushering into the schools a system of independent school
administration, self-development, self-motivation and self-restraining.
·
Reform of the former
school administration system operated by state-owned enterprises. In their
efforts to establish modern enterprises regime, the large and medium-sized
state-owned enterprises shall gradually spin off the primary and secondary
schools they are operating. All enterprises must conduct vocational education
and training.
In June 1994, the
Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council
convened the National Conference on Education. The Conference put forward that:
eradicating illiteracy and universalizing nine-year compulsory education by the
end of the century will be listed as the first priority; energetically
developing vocational and adult education is the only approach for enhancing
labour quality and a prosperous economy; at the higher education level,
enhancement of quality and efficiency of education provision is a key issue.
The Conference also defined policies, guidelines and measures relating to
several important issues, such as improvement of moral education, enhancement
of education quality, strengthening teacher training and educational
legislation.
In order to adapt
to the socialist modernization drive, education in China will be reformed and
developed in accordance with the overall plan established at the 1994 National
Conference on Education and the Outlines for Educational Reform and
Development. The overall plan contains several key points: “realization of Two
Primaries; establishment of Two Keys; forcefully developing vocational and
adult education; strengthening and improving the moral education and
guaranteeing the basic conditions.” These are the core of the overall plan for
educational reform and development.
The general
objectives of the educational reform are: to stimulate the enthusiasm of all
social sectors in education provision; explore effective approaches for
education development adapted to the actual conditions of the country; enhance
education quality and efficiency of school operations; gradually formulate a
socialist education system adapted to the socialist market economy and to the
characteristics of modern education.
The system where
schools are operated by the government will be changed into a system where
education provision is mainly rendered by the government but also supplemented
by all social sectors. The functions of the government will change from direct
management to macro-level control by laws, plans, budget allocation,
information service, policy guidance and necessary administrative means.
Compulsory
education is provided free of charge and at the stage of non-compulsory
education (higher education, general senior secondary and secondary vocational
education) the system of tuition fees will be adopted. Standard tuition fees
will be established in accordance with the different conditions of all types of
education and the economic capacity of citizens. A system of scholarships,
loans, free-of-charge, and work-study programmes will be adopted in higher
education institutions, specialized secondary schools and skilled workers’
schools, so as to provide financial assistance to needy students.
More efforts will
be made to transform and reform teaching content and methods. Use should be made of the new developments of culture,
science and technology to update teaching content, adjust curricula, and improve
quality of education and learning achievement. Based on the transmission of
basic knowledge and basic theories, as well as on the training in basic skills,
great attention should be paid to the building of students’ capacity to analyze
and solve problems and to adapt to the social developments, so that the basic
quality of students can be enhanced in an all-round way.
Structure and organization of
the education system
Pre-school
education
Kindergartens
enroll children at age 3+, and the length of schooling is 3 years. Pre-school
education (one-year course before the primary education stage) is not
compulsory.
Primary education
Three
systems co-exist for primary and lower secondary education: the
6+3 system, the 5+4 system and the nine-year system, with the 6+3 system
predominating in most areas. Thus, the length of schooling for primary
education is six or five years, and for lower secondary education, four or
three years. Children start school at the age of 6 or 7, and enter lower
secondary schools at the age of 12 or 13.
Secondary education
The
starting age for upper secondary schools is 15 or 16, and the length of
schooling is three years. For secondary specialized schools, there are two different
possibilities. For schools that enroll lower secondary school graduates, the
starting age is 15 or 16; the length of schooling is four years for most
schools, and three years for the rest. For schools that enroll upper secondary
school graduates, the starting age is below 22; the length of schooling is
usually three years and, for upper secondary vocational schools, two or three
years (exceptionally four years).
Full-time
undergraduate courses at higher education institutions last four or five
years (seven or eight years for medical universities), and the length of
short-cycle courses is two or three years.
The starting age
for graduate education is below 40 for master’s degree programmes, and below 45
for doctoral degree programmes. The length of courses is two or three years for
master’s programmes, and three years for most doctoral programmes. Schools for
adults follow the same schooling system as the corresponding ordinary schools.
Secondary school courses for adults have the same length as the ordinary
secondary schools for full-time students, and are one year longer for part-time
students. The length of undergraduate courses at higher education institutions
for adults is usually four or five years. Short-cycle courses take many forms
and the length of courses is usually between two and four years.
The school year at
the primary and secondary levels is divided into two terms, with the first term
beginning in autumn (September), and the second term beginning in spring
(usually in March). Each school year normally includes thirty-four working
weeks.
As far as higher
education is concerned, the academic year consists of thirty-six weeks of
classes (eighteen weeks for each of the two terms), two or three weeks for
general review and tests, and eleven weeks for winter and summer vacations. A
number of higher education institutions which have adopted the credit system
follow a different approach, with the school year divided into three terms, in
order to strengthen practical teaching.
State budgetary
allocation is the main source of funds for education in the country, consisting
of allocations from the central treasury and those from local treasuries. In
general, educational services run and administered by local governments are
financed by local budgets, while the central treasury provides funding for
schools under the jurisdiction of SEDC, central ministries and agencies, and
special allocations for particular aspects of educational development.
In spite of the
many financial difficulties, in 1995-96 the level of educational input has
risen considerably, giving more evidence to the importance attached by government at all levels to education.
However, 90 percent of the increase in the
recurrent expenditure on education in the fiscal budget is spent on
personnel costs.
While increasing
the input of financial resources directed to education, the government has
attempted to raise funds for education through a variety of channels. These
channels mainly include: (i) urban and rural educational surcharges collected
by local governments; (ii) expenditure on education by factories and
enterprises; (iii) funds raised among various social groups, public
organizations and individual citizens, as well as donations; (iv) fees paid by
students; and (v) income from school-run enterprises and work-study programmes.
Article 53 of the
Education Law stipulates that the State will establish a system with government
budget allocation as the main funding source, supplemented by multi-approaches
for raising funds for education. At present, in addition to the financial input
from enterprises, individuals and social bodies, the main approaches for
raising education funds are as follows: finance, extra fees tuition, industry,
fund-raising, donations and monetary approach.
The Education Law
stipulates that Chinese is the basic instructional language for schools and
other educational institutions. In schools and educational institutions mainly
attended by ethnic minority students, the ethnic minority language or the local
language can be used in teaching activities.
Pre-primary education
Pre-school
education is a one-year course before the primary stage and is the preparation
for school education. The State Education Commission is being preparing a
regulation concerning the kindergarten curriculum. For pre-school classes,
instructional time is no more than twelve periods per week and each period is
no longer than thirty minutes. No tests or examinations are conducted at the pre-school
level.
Primary education
The curriculum of
primary education comprises academic subjects and practical activities,
determined at State and province levels. The curriculum set forth by the State
is the compulsory core curriculum, including: moral education; Chinese
language; mathematics; study of the society; study of the nature; sports;
music; arts; and labour. Some schools with the necessary capacities also offer
foreign languages teaching. The local curriculum mainly aims at facilitating
the local economic and cultural development and is arranged by the educational
authorities of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under
the Central Government. Schools are authorized to arrange the local curriculum,
both in academic and activity aspects, as compulsory or alternative courses.
In primary and
junior secondary schools qualification examinations are conducted at the end of
each term, at the end of the school year and for graduation.
Primary graduation
includes an examination in language and mathematics and only check-ups for the
other courses. When students pass exams in language and mathematics and are up
to the standard in physical education, they graduate. The primary graduation
exams are under the guidance of the county educational departments. Normally,
schools will design the examination papers; in rural townships the education
department will be responsible for designing of examination papers. In the
areas where the nine-year compulsory education is achieved, there is no entrance
examination for junior secondary education.
Secondary education
At the junior
secondary level, the following subjects are taught: morality and politics,
Chinese language, mathematics, foreign language, history, geography, physics,
chemistry, biology, sports, arts and
labour, as well as short-term vocational guidance.
At the general
senior secondary level, the following subjects are taught: politics, Chinese,
mathematics, foreign language, physics, chemistry, biology, history, geography,
sports, arts and labour skills. All subjects are determined by the State and
politics, mathematics, language, sports, arts and labour skills are compulsory.
Other subjects could be either compulsory or alternative.
The subjects of
junior secondary graduation examinations are selected among those of the
graduating grade; other subjects are checked only. The design of examination
papers is determined by education departments and education commissions of
provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central
government.
The qualification
examination system is adopted at the general secondary stage. Exams and checks
are combined. The subjects for the examination are: language, mathematics,
foreign language, politics, physics, chemistry, biology, history and geography.
The subjects for check-ups are: labour skills, experiment and operation of
physics, chemistry, and biology. Examination in physical education is conducted
in accordance with a uniform syllabus. The examination papers are prepared by
provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. Their responsibilities also
cover exam organizing, paper correcting, collecting and analysing of
statistics, and results reporting. The check-up papers are prepared by the
county and city education departments according to the examinations norms.
At present there
are five types of vocational schools in China: higher education vocational
schools (86); specialized secondary schools (4,049); schools for skilled
workers (4,507); senior secondary vocational schools (8,612); and junior
secondary vocational schools (1,535). Among them, the secondary technical and
vocational schools (specialized secondary schools, skilled workers schools and
senior secondary schools) are the main stream of vocational education and their
total number is 17,168. In addition, there are more than 2,000 pre-service
training centres throughout the country.
In 1993, the
various secondary vocational schools nationwide amounted to 16,842 with a total
enrollment of 7,623,300 students, an increase of 795,100 compared with 1992. In
1993, students in all types of secondary vocational schools represented 53.7%
of the enrollment in middle schools as a whole, an increase of 5% over the 49%
in 1992.
The
specialties in vocational schools cover the main positions and jobs in the
first, second and third industries such as: engineering, agriculture, forestry,
health and medicine, finance, management, politics, arts, physical education
and others. There are 186 and 518 specialties in higher education vocational
schools and specialized secondary schools, respectively. The number of
specialties in skilled workers schools and secondary vocational schools is over
3,000.
At present,
measures are being taken to establish a system of double certificates oriented
to vocational education. When students receive their diplomas, the authorities
concerned will check their skills in accordance with their specialties and then
the qualified students will receive the vocational qualification certificate or
the technical-grade certificate. These measures have been implemented in
skilled workers schools and senior secondary vocational schools and will be
implemented in some specialized secondary schools.
Higher
education
The Provisional Regulation on Admission to General
Institutions of Higher Education, promulgated by the State Education
Commission, stipulates that a system of unitary entrance examinations for
general higher education will be adopted, namely, unitary design of examination
papers, unitary tests, unitary qualification for registers and subjects, as
well as the checking methods for morals and standards for physical
constitution. The unitary policies and principles for comprehensive examination
in moral, intellectual and physical education will be formulated, so as to
admit the best students. In accordance with the unitary regulations, provinces,
autonomous regions and municipalities are responsible for registration, tests,
political checks, health examination, and undertake separately the recruitment
in general higher education.
Higher education institutions may decide to adjust
disciplines and specialties; undertake scientific research, technical
development and social services; establish their internal structure; and assign
staff members in teaching, research and administrative organs on their own, in
accordance with the concerned stipulations, social needs and their actual
conditions. The institutions examine and approve the professional titles of
technical personnel, and have the decisive right in: employment matters;
adjusting the internal structure of salary; management of funds; facilities;
governmental finance and donations; and conduct international exchanges and
co-operation programmes. The decision-making organs in the higher education
institutions determine the internal organizational structure, personnel
assignments, medium- and long-term development plans, and the basic management
system. The president of the institution is responsible for the daily
administrative work such as: teaching, scientific research, political and
values education, and general affairs. The academic committee is in charge of
the assessment and adjustment of disciplines and specialties, as well as
examining teaching and research plans.
The assessment of higher education institutions is
composed of three forms: self-assessment, assessment by the administrative
organs and social assessment. The assessment by the administrative organs
includes: qualified assessment, comprehensive assessment of levels of education
provided, and assessment for selection of the best.
The purpose is mainly to comprehensive assess levels
of education provided with a focus on the qualifications and assessment for
selection of the best. The main contents of the comprehensive assessment are:
the orientation and management levels of higher education institutions; overall
qualities of students in terms of moral, intellectual and physical
characteristics; scientific and technological endeavours and social service;
basic conditions under which education is provided.
In order to guarantee the assessment work of higher
education institutions, the State Education Commission formulated and
disseminated the Primary Standards and Contents for Assessment of Higher
Education Institutions. It stipulates that all the institutions must satisfy
the requirement of the Provisional Regulation on Establishment of Higher
Education Institutions for Adults and Complementary Regulation on Establishment
of Higher Education Institutions. At the same time, it establishes the basic conditions
for education provision, institution management, teaching quality and
efficiency of operation, as well as the concrete contents and requirement for
correspondence programmes and evening programmes operated by higher education
institutions. It also stipulates assessment methods and standards.
In 1980, the People’s Congress approved and
promulgated the Regulations on Degrees of the People’s Republic of China. The
Regulation stipulates that degrees in China are composed of bachelor’s,
master’s and doctoral degrees. Students in higher education institutions are
awarded a bachelor’s degree when they have attained excellent academic
achievements in normal courses and the following: (a) mastery of basic theory,
specific knowledge and skills in the specified subjects; (b) primary ability in
undertaking scientific research and technical work.
Graduates in higher education institutions and research institutes, or personnel with the equivalent academic level, are awarded a master’s degree when they pass the examinations and defend a thesis, and are up to the following standards: (a) solid mastery of the basic theory and systematic knowledge in certain subjects; (b) the ability of independently undertaking scientific research and technical work.
Graduates in
higher education institutions and research institutes, or the students with the
equivalent academic level, are awarded a doctoral degree when they pass all the
specified examinations and defend a thesis, and are up to the following
standards: (a) solid mastery of the basic theory and further systematic
knowledge in certain subjects; (b) the ability to independently undertake
scientific research; (c) initiative results in sciences and specific
technology.
In order to
strengthen the management of higher education academic diplomas and keep up the
authenticity of the diploma system, as well as the quality and structure of
higher education, the State Education Commission promulgated the Provisional
Regulation on Management of Diplomas of General Higher Education in 1993.
According to this Regulation, when students with a formal record of schooling
accomplish all the courses, pass the examinations and are up to the standard in
moral and physical education, they can graduate with an academic diploma. The
Regulation stipulates clearly the conditions and management of the awarding of
academic diplomas. Students with a formal record of schooling having completed
all the courses and not passing examinations in one or more courses and failing
either of the complementary examinations, but who are up to the standard in
moral and physical education, will receive a certificate of accomplishment.
Students with formal record of schooling having studied in a school for more
than a year and leaving school without finishing all the courses of programme,
will also receive a certificate. The Regulation also stipulates the awarding of
certificates for other types of students.
In order to
improve the higher education system and encourage self-improvement through
self-study, the State Council promulgated the Provisional Regulation on
Self-study Examinations in Higher Education, which stipulates that learners
could receive academic diplomas when they:
a)
accomplish all the
courses set by the teaching programme and pass the examinations;
b)
accomplish the
graduation thesis or other task in teaching;
c)
are up to standard in
morality.
In the past
fifteen years, more than 20 million students participated in self-study
examination programmes; in 1995, 7.45 million students sat the examinations and
1.2 million graduated.
India
Principles
and general objectives of education
India’s commitment to the spread of knowledge and
freedom of thought among all citizens is reflected in its Constitution,
promulgated in January 1950. The Directive Principle contained in Article 45
ensures that “the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years
from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.” Article 29 (1)
ensures that any citizen having a distinct language, script or culture will
have the right to conserve it. Article 350-A stipulates that “it shall be the
endeavour of every state and of every local authority within the state to
provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.”
Moreover, special care of the economic and educational interests of the
underprivileged sections––in particular the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes––is a declared obligation of the State under Article 46.
Article 29(2) ensures that no citizen shall be
denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or
the receipt of aid from State funds on grounds of religion, race, caste, or
language.
The expression “the State” includes the Government and Parliament of India, the government and the legislature of each of the states and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.
Current educational priorities and concerns
Educational policy and progress have been reviewed in
the light of the goals of national development and priorities set from time to
time. In the National Policy on Education (NPE) approved in 1968, an emphasis
on quality improvement, a planned and more equitable expansion of educational
facilities and the need to focus on the education of girls was stressed.
The
1986 NPE, as updated in 1992, and the 1992 Plan of Action (POA) provide for
several key strategies. Among the distinguishing features and recommendations
of this policy, the following should be mentioned:
·
increasing reliance on
social mobilization to promote basic education;
·
emphasis on pre-primary
education;
·
decentralization, with
the district as the unit of planning for implementation of elementary education
and adult literacy;
·
formulation of
strategies based on micro-planning at the grassroots level to ensure children’s
retention in school;
·
introduction of Minimum
Levels of Learning (MLL) in schools to improve learner’s achievement.
Micro-planning will provide the framework for universal access and universal
participation, while MLL would be the strategy for universal achievement;
·
integration of adult
literacy and non-formal education programmes with vital national concerns such
as the small family norm, health care, environment and nutrition;
·
provision of essential
facilities in schools;
·
adoption of a
child-centred, activity-based approach;
·
establishment of
District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) for the pre-service and
in-service training of teachers for elementary schools and for personnel
employed in non-formal and adult education programmes.
Since
the 1986 National Policy on Education, the most significant development has
been the acceptance of a common structure of education and the introduction by
most states of the 10+2 system, i.e. a ten-year programme divided into three
cycles––primary, upper primary (or middle school) and secondary
education––followed by two years of higher secondary education.
As
far as elementary education (primary and upper primary) is concerned, ensuring
accessibility of educational opportunities has been the principal governmental
strategy. Special efforts were aimed at educationally disadvantaged
groups––particularly Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), 17% and
8% of the population, respectively. This has included monetary and other
incentives, and recruitment of more teachers from disadvantaged communities, as
well as flexible school timings. As an incentive to enrollment, attendance and
retention, in addition to improving the nutrition of children, a nationwide
mid-day meal programme was launched during 1995/96. More than 33.5 million of children benefited from the
scheme.
In
addition, the education system seeks to give due recognition and importance to
the social organization, traditions, customs and value systems of the various
communities––in particular SCs and STs. This is supported by the development of
materials and curricula in their languages, the creation of residential schools
and the participation of young and educated members of the community in the
educational process.
Various
initiatives have been taken to reduce the academic burden on students while
improving the quality of education. Not only is the curriculum development
being decentralized, but also teachers are being increasingly involved in the
development of textbooks, child-centered and activity-based methods of teaching
in schools, and examination strategies are being formulated to assess the
ability to understand rather than the ability to memorize. The examination
system is under permanent review through the introduction of continuous and
comprehensive evaluation.
In
1996 the Government renewed its commitment to the universalization of
elementary education (UEE) and to raise education allocation from the level of
3.23% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) up to 6% by the turn of the century. The
opening of residential schools for poor children in each district and a Teacher
Housing Scheme are the thrust areas of the new policy.
The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is the major initiative undertaken to effect improvement in the quality and UEE. The programme is distinguished by its holistic approach and the principle of contextuality in planning. This, in effect, implies that education is planned and organized in the specific context of the area concerned––a shift from macro- to micro-planning with the district as the unit of planning. The programme lays great emphasis on people’s participation and management, has a marked gender focus and seeks to enhance school effectiveness by increasing infrastructural facilities, developing instructional materials and teacher training.
The
revised NPE (1992) has proposed reforms and a restructuring at the secondary
education stage, aimed at an improvement of curriculum content and systemic
efficiency. The two main areas of focus are: vocationalization and greater use
of educational technology. Vocationalization in the last two years of school
education was first introduced in 1988 and is anticipated to serve individual
employability, create a bridge between the demand for and supply of skilled
manpower and provide an alternative to higher education for those not inclined
to academics. In 1996, about 10% of students followed vocational courses at the
higher secondary stage.
The
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has developed
eighty-two competency-based curricula for six identifiable subject areas of
vocational education. General education and foundation courses, as well as
language development, will form 30% of the teaching/learning requirement, in
addition to vocational theory and on-the-job training, which will account for
70% of course time.
The
last decade has witnessed a number of new initiatives to improve the access to
and participation of children in elementary education as well as for improving
the quality of education provided in primary schools. The proposed National
Campaign for Education for All––Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan––will be implemented by Government of India in partnership
with the state governments with a long-term perspective and through a
district-level decentralized management framework involving local bodies. It is
envisaged that the Campaign will move towards achieving the following four
goals:
·
providing access to all
children in the age group 6-14 years through formal primary schools or through other
equivalent alternative programmes by the year 2003;
·
completion of five years
of primary education by all children by 2007;
·
completion of eight
years of elementary education by all children by 2010;
·
provision of elementary
education of satisfactory quality for all by 2010.
The
programme will be implemented in a manner that will provide adequate
opportunities for NGOs and the private sector to contribute towards the
achievement of these goals and lead towards a community-owned initiative for
universalizing elementary education. Keeping in view past experiences, efforts
under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan will
be underscored by effective decentralization, sustainable financing,
cost-effective strategies for universalization, relevant curriculum,
community-owned planning and implementation, and focus on girls and
disadvantaged groups (Department of Education, 1999).
Structure and organization of the education system
Primary education (or the elementary stage) caters to children aged 6-14; it is free and
compulsory. In all the States and Union Territories (S/UTs), elementary
education is composed of two cycles: primary education and upper primary (or
middle school). Elementary education lasts eight years in twenty S/UTs and
seven years in twelve S/UTs. In the case of eight-year programmes, the pattern
followed by eighteen S/UTs is five years of primary education and three years
of upper primary; in the other two S/UTs, elementary education consists of two
four-year cycles. In the case of seven-year programmes, in eleven S/UTs the
pattern is 4+3, while in one state primary education lasts five years followed
by two years of upper primary.
Secondary education is divided into secondary and higher secondary (academic or
vocational). In twenty S/UTs, secondary education lasts four years, divided
into two two-year cycles (Grades IX-X and Grades XI-XII). In twelve S/UTs,
secondary education lasts five years and is divided into two cycles––Grades
VIII-X and Grades XI-XII. In all the States and Union Territories higher
secondary education comprises Grades XI and XII (Department of Education,
1999).
General higher education is provided in universities and colleges. Undergraduate courses leading to a first degree generally last three years. Post-degree courses range from two to three years.
“Education is financed by the central government,
state governments, local authorities, and a variety of private sources. The
education budgets of the central government as well as the state governments
are divided into categories: developmental expenditure (Plan) and maintenance
(Non-Plan). Over the years, there has been a remarkable increase in expenditure
on education, both as percentage of the gross national product and as a
percentage of government expenditure.” (Bordia, 1995, p. 436).
The
total expenditure on education increased by 60.5% during 1990-95, of which the
central government’s share was about 9%. As a percentage of GNP, the increase
during the period has been marginal, but a substantial increase of up to 6% of
GNP is envisaged by the turn of this century.
The bulk of the financial outlay on education is
allocated to elementary and adult education. The total expenditure on
elementary education rose from 79,555 million rupees (Rs) in 1990/91 to
Rs129,834 million in 1994/95. The total expenditure on adult education rose
from Rs2,731 million in 1990/91 to Rs3,585 million in 1994/95. Expenditure on
elementary and adult education is mainly incurred by the central government,
state governments and local bodies. Voluntary agencies, which are participating
in providing basic education to children and youth, are mostly being financed
from central and state funds.
The government provides free elementary
education and provides incentives to children––particularly those from
disadvantaged groups. The mid-day meal programme, which has been implemented on
a large scale from August 1995, is one of the most important incentives being
provided. Literacy programmes are also free.
Pre-primary education
The
1986 National Policy on Education defined the objective of early childhood care
and education (ECCE) as being the total development of children in the age
group 0-6 years, and added that special attention must be paid to children from
underprivileged groups and those who were first generation learners. In a
country like India, where inequalities are so extreme that thousands of
children require––in addition to educational facilities and exposure to a
learning environment––support in terms of health care and nutritional inputs,
ECCE has evolved as a programme which seeks to provide such a holistic service.
The ECCE programme is designed to further the three objectives of: (a)
preparing children for primary school; (b) providing a support service for
girls in Universal Primary Education (UPE); and (c) acting as a support service
for working women of low-income groups.
The
content of ECCE programmes extends beyond health care and nutritional inputs to
encompass structured and unstructured play activities, and to provide materials
and learning experiences to promote the social, emotional, mental, physical and
aesthetic development of children. There is also an effort to establish
effective linkages between ECCE and other development programmes to ensure a
convergence of services. These include the Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS), balwadis/anganwadis
or day-care centres, schemes which are run by governmental and non-governmental
organizations, and pre-primary schools managed by local organizations and state
governments.
It can be noted that the spread of ECCE
facilities––particularly in terms of ICDS centres––has been phenomenal in
recent years, covering all the 5,320 community development blocks in the
country. However, the actual outreach and coverage in respect of early
childhood education component has been rather poor. This is evident from the
fact that the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 10.3% in 1990 has improved only
to 16.9% in 1997/98. In addition, the coverage is very uneven across different
part of the country (Department of Education, 1999).
Primary education
The states are free to develop their own curricula and instructional materials
within the framework developed at the national level by the NCERT. To cope with
this, a strategy has been developed to impart Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL),
i.e. the development of competency-based teaching and learning to suit local
situations. This approach integrates various components of curriculum,
classroom transaction, evaluation and teacher orientation.
At
the primary stage, the focus of the curriculum is on: development of basic
skills of literacy and numeracy; study of the environment in terms of physical
and social phenomena; participation in activities which would develop
productive skills, creative expression and habits of healthy living (Department
of Education, 1999).
The
elementary education system in India is the second largest in the world, with
about 82% of the children aged 6-14 enrolled. The emphasis, however, is not on
enrollment alone, and equal attention is paid to retention and achievement. An
estimated 95% of the rural population now has access to primary schooling
facilities within a walking distance of one kilometre; 84% of the population is
served by middle or upper primary schools within a distance of three
kilometres. Gross enrollment ratios have remained relatively static during the
1990s. This is particularly true of the figures for boys at the primary level
(age group 6-11 years). Corresponding figures for girls show an increase of
about 6%. On the whole, as against a GER of 90.3% (98.5% for boys and 81.5% for
girls) in primary education, the net enrollment ratio (NER) is only
71.1%––77.7% for boys and 64% for girls.
The
number of children who regularly attend school and complete the first cycle of
education still needs to be improved substantially. For a number of reasons,
many children do not complete primary education. There are wide disparities
among different states. For example, while almost all children enrolled in the
initial grades of primary education complete at least four or five years of
schooling in the states of Kerala, Goa and Mizoram, the figures concerning
school drop-outs in certain other states continue to be very high. Thus, an
important goal is the reduction of drop-out rates in Grades I-V and Grades
I-VIII from 36.3% and 56.5% in 1994 to 20% and 40%, respectively. These rates
were set as targets to be achieved during the Ninth Five-year Plan period
(1997-2002).
The
repetition rate is not very high––around 5-8% on the average. This is possibly
due to the policy of automatic promotion in initial grades followed in most of
the states. Low repetition rates may, however, be leading to lack of attention
to learner achievement and in turn affecting the learning levels of the
children as well as their motivation to attend regularly (Department of
Education, 1999).
Secondary
education
There has been a steady expansion of secondary
education. Between 1986 and 1993, the enrollment growth for secondary and
higher secondary was 32.45% and 37.72%, respectively. Girls’ enrollment
increased greatly, registering an increase of about 51% at the secondary level
and 54% at the higher secondary level. In addition to expansion, secondary education
is being strengthened through various schemes for improving education in:
science, vocational areas and work experience, population education, culture,
values, computer literacy, education technology, yoga, physical education and
sports. A number of programmes have also been formulated for promoting
enrollment of girls, SCs, STs, and disabled children.
The
number of secondary and higher secondary schools increased from 7,416 in
1950/51 to 102,183 in 1996/97. The participation rate of girls at the secondary/higher
secondary stage increased from 13.3% to 36.3% during the same period. The
teacher-student ratio, which was 1:21 in 1950/51, increased to 1:33 in 1996/97.
The higher education system has grown steadily since independence. From twenty-five universities in 1947, this number increased to 216 by 1994/95. This figure includes thirteen central universities, 164 state universities and thirty-six university-level institutions. The number of colleges rose from 700 to 8,613. Enrollment figures for the same period show an increase from 0.2 million to 6.11 million students, with approximately 300,000 teachers. Although there has been a spectacular increase in student enrollment, the coverage of the relevant age group (18-23 years) is relatively low––about 6%.
In 1994/95, about two million female students were
enrolled in higher education programmes with their participation at the
post-graduate level accounting for 35.6% of the total enrollment. The
preference continues to rest with the arts and humanities courses, which
represent 40.4% of enrollment. Commerce courses attract an estimated 21.9% of
the enrollment; science courses, 19.6%; engineering and technology, 4.9%; law,
5.3%; and other faculties, 5.6%.
Of the 8,613 colleges, 974 provide education in
professional disciplines like engineering (352), agriculture (170) and medicine
(638)––including ayurvedic,
homeopathic, pharmacy, etc. Others provide education in arts, physical
sciences, humanities, social sciences, etc.
“All central universities and a few others are
primarily residential. About 83 percent of enrollment in higher education is in
affiliated colleges. Technical and professional courses range from three to
five years for a first-degree course and from two to three years for a
post-degree course. Admission requirements in general education courses are not
very demanding, but admission to engineering and medical courses is very
competitive. Universities also provide facilities for research and many of
them, particularly the agricultural universities, have developed strong
extension programmes.” (Bordia, 1995, p. 433).
The University
Grants Commission (UGC) focused its activities on restructuring undergraduate
courses to make them more relevant and to provide a work experience component
for them. Efforts are also being made to develop a curriculum for women’s
studies at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Financial support is
offered to universities seeking to conduct research in women’s studies. The UGC
is the body responsible for funding and establishing standards for higher
education. Lately, it has been granting greater autonomy to universities. In
this context, more than 100 universities have become autonomous institutions.
There
has been a phenomenal growth in the number of technical education institutions
during the last four decades. The number of recognized technical education
institutions at the first degree level was thirty-eight in 1947/48, whereas the
number of approved degree-level institutions by 1995/96 has increased to 414
and the number of polytechnics to 1,026. Similar expansions have taken place in
other sectors of technical education.
At
present, six Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) have been set up––at Bombay,
Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras and Guwahati––by the Government of India under
the Institutes of Technology Act (1961). They are institutions of national
importance, with the objective to advance knowledge through quality education
and research, in both pure and applied sciences, and in engineering and
technology. These institutes offer engineering courses at graduate and
post-graduate levels and also provide adequate facilities for advanced research.
Four
Indian Institutes of Management (IIM) were set up by the Government of India at
Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Bangalore and Lucknow with the objectives of providing
education, training, research and consultancy in management. The IIMs offer
post-graduate programmes, fellowship programmes, management development
programmes, post-graduate diplomas in computer-aided management and
organization-based programmes. The Government of India has recently approved
the establishment of two more IIMs, one at Indore (Madhya Pradesh) and the
other at Calicut (Kerala).
Japan
Principles
and general objectives of education
The basic principles for education in Japan are
defined in the Constitution, enacted in 1946, and the Fundamental Law of
Education (1947). The Constitution provides for the basic right and duty of the
people to receive education as follows: “All people shall have the right to
receive an equal education corresponding to their abilities, as provided for by
law. The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their
protection receive general education as provided for by law. Such compulsory
education shall be free.” (Article 26).
The
Fundamental Law of Education sets forth the basic national aims and principles
of education in accordance with the spirit of the Constitution. The Law defines
the central aim of education as “the full development of personality, striving
for the rearing of people, sound in mind and body, who shall love truth and
justice, esteem the value of the individual, respect labour and have a deep
sense of responsibility, and be imbued with an independent spirit, as builders
of a peaceful state and society.” To achieve this aim, the Law sets forth
national principles of education such as: equal opportunity; nine-year
compulsory education; co-education; and prohibition of partisan political
education.
Current educational priorities and concerns
The
education system in Japan is undergoing overall reorganization based on ideas
of educational reform, with the aim of changing the mode of thinking which
places too much value on formal schooling, and securing stronger links among
different educational functions, including formal education, so as to promote
lifelong learning.
From
1984 to 1987 a National Council of Educational Reform engaged in wide-ranging deliberations regarding education and
other related fields. It submitted to the Prime Minister four successive
reports, in which diverse recommendations regarding educational reform
strategies were put forward. The
Council set forth three basic viewpoints for educational reform: (i) emphasis
on individuality; (ii) transition to a lifelong learning society; and (iii)
coping with various changes including internationalization in various sectors
of society and the spread of modern information media.
The
emphasis on individuality encompasses
the principles of dignity of individuals, respect for personality, freedom and
self-discipline, and individual responsibility. In its reports, the Council
defined this principle as the most important one to be considered in all the
aspects of the educational reform. This principle presupposes the elimination
of the existing negative characteristics of education in Japan: uniformity,
rigidity and closedness. It was necessary that all aspects of the education
system, including content and methods of teaching, educational structures and
government policies in education, be reviewed in the light of this basic
principle. The importance of fostering children creativity, thinking ability
and powers of expression, avoiding emphasis on memorization, was also stressed.
The
transition to a lifelong learning society
is intended to correct a mode of thinking which places too much value on formal
schooling, and to create a new education system whereby people can participate
in learning by freely choosing relevant opportunities at any time throughout
their lives, and whereby the results of their learning will be duly assessed.
The creation of such a new education system is intended to meet the diverse
learning demands brought about by the increase in leisure hours, the
improvement of the average level of formal schooling completed by individuals,
and the aging of the population. In addition, it is designed to respond to the
necessity of acquiring new knowledge and skills relevant to the various social
changes, including the progress of advanced science and technology and the
greater predominance of software industries. It is also important that the
educational function of the family and the community be vitalized and that
mutual links among the family, the school and the community be ensured.
Coping with various changes implies that education must actively and flexibly
interact with the changing environment. The most important tasks with which
education is confronted are coping with internationalization and with an
information-oriented society.
The
National Council of Educational Reform formulated many proposals which require
further deliberations for their implementation. In this respect, some other
relevant advisory bodies to the Minister have further deliberated specific
issues for implementing reforms, and submitted to the Minister concrete
recommendations.
The
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture has been implementing
various reforms on the basis of recommendations put forward by the Central
Council of Education. In April 1995, the Ministry reorganized this Council and
asked it to consider how to develop Japan’s education with a view to the 21st
century. The Council is now deliberating the following three major subjects:
(i) Japan’s education system in the future and the respective roles of the
school, the family, the community and the forms of their collaboration; (ii)
education adapted to the abilities and aptitudes of individuals and the
improvement of articulation between the different school levels; and (iii) education
relevant to various social changes such as internationalization, the spread of
modern information media, and the advancement of science and technology. In
July 1996, the Council published its first report.
The
Lifelong Learning Council submitted in 1992 the report Strategies for the promotion of lifelong learning which are relevant to
various future trends in society, and in April 1996 it published another
report (Strategies for expanding lifelong
learning opportunities at the community level). In the 1996 report, the
Council recommended various strategies required for the expansion of lifelong
learning opportunities at the community level, with regard to: (i) universities
and other higher education institutions; (ii) elementary, lower secondary and upper
secondary schools; (iii) facilities for non-formal education, culture and
sports; and (iv) research and in-service training institutes.
The
University Council has published a
report on the following issues: the expansion and enrichment of graduate school
programmes; the incorporation of flexibility into the graduate school system;
the improvement of university programmes, as well as of the system of academic
degrees; the systematic development, both quantitative and qualitative, of
higher education; the vitalization of university management; and the
improvement of university entrance examinations. The Council is now
deliberating various issues regarding university reform, with a view to
enhancing and vitalizing educational and research activities of individual
universities.
Reforms
regarding the education system are now shifting from the planning stage to the
stage of gradual implementation. In this transition, emphasis has been placed
on spontaneous choice of alternatives, as well as innovative and creative
efforts, by each locality and by each educational institution. Consequently,
the spontaneous efforts and independent ideas of many related people in each
locality and at each educational institution are required to a greater extent
than ever before.
Structure and organization of the education system
Kindergartens cater to children between the ages of
3 and 6. Pre-school education is not compulsory and is mainly provided
by private institutions (79.6% of children in 1995). About 63% of 5-year-olds
were enrolled in kindergartens in 1995.
Primary
education is the first step of
compulsory schooling and all children between the ages of 6 and 12 are required
to attend elementary school. Almost all children (98.6%) are enrolled in public
schools supported by local governments.
Lower
secondary education is the final step
of compulsory schooling and caters to pupils between 12 and 15 years. Students
who have completed the three-year lower secondary course are entitled to apply
to upper secondary schools or colleges of technology.
There
are three types of upper secondary school courses: full-time, part-time
and correspondence courses. Full-time courses last three years, while part-time
and correspondence courses last three years or more. Part-time courses are
mainly offered in the evenings. In terms of the content of teaching, upper
secondary school courses may be classified broadly into three categories:
general, specialized and integrated. General courses offer general education, with
emphasis on academic subjects, while specialized courses are designed to
provide vocational, technical or other education for those students who have
chosen a particular vocational area as their future career. These courses are
further classified into several categories, such as agriculture, industry,
business, fishery, home economics, nursing, science and mathematics, etc.
Integrated courses comprehensively offer general and specialized education.
Higher
education institutions in Japan
include universities (Daigaku),
junior colleges (Tanki-daigaku) and
colleges of technology (Koto-senmongakko).
In addition, special training schools and
miscellaneous schools offering advanced courses may be counted as institutions
of higher education.
While
universities and junior colleges require for admission the completion of upper
secondary schooling, “colleges of technology are a unique form of higher
education institution providing mainly technology and engineering education for
those having completed lower-secondary school” (Kanaya, 1995, p. 484). A
college of technology usually offers several courses in engineering and
mercantile marine studies. The duration of the course is five years (five and a
half years for mercantile marine courses). There are a variety of main courses,
including those in mechanical engineering, electric engineering, electronic
control, information technology, material/bio-engineering, civil engineering,
mercantile marine, and management information.
Special
training schools are a new type of educational institution created in 1976.
They offer systematic educational activities, aiming to help students develop
the abilities required for vocational and daily life, and also to help improve
their cultural standards. These schools are required to maintain an enrollment
of at least forty students and to offer instruction for 800 hours or more per
year for each course. The courses may be classified into three categories:
upper secondary courses admitting lower secondary school graduates; advanced courses
admitting upper secondary school graduates; and other courses. Those special
training schools offering upper secondary courses may be called “upper
secondary special training schools”, while those offering advanced courses are
referred to as “special training colleges.”
Junior
colleges offer courses lasting two or three years, mainly in the fields of
humanities, home sciences, education and social sciences.
A
university has one or more undergraduate faculties or other basic units for
educational activities, which offer courses usually lasting four years (six
years for medical, dental and veterinary courses) leading to a bachelor’s
degree. A university may set up a graduate school aiming to give graduate
students opportunities to pursue in-depth study and research concerning
academic theories and their application. Graduate schools require the
completion of an undergraduate course or its equivalent for admission. A
graduate school offers master’s degree courses (usually two years of study) and
doctoral degree courses (the standard duration of course is five years, except
for medical, dental or veterinary courses, which last four years).
The
school year begins on 1 April and ends on 31 March of the following year,
corresponding with the fiscal year of the country. At the elementary and lower
secondary levels, the school year is usually divided into three terms:
April-July, September-December and January-March. While the majority of upper
secondary schools adopt a three-term school year, some of them adopt a semester
system (usually, the first semester ranges from April to September, and the
second from October to March). Higher education institutions usually adopt a
two-semester academic year. According to the Course of study for kindergartens, the number of working weeks per
year should be not less than thirty-nine, except under special circumstances.
At
all school levels, vacation is granted in summer (from the end of July through
August), in winter (from the end of December to early January) and in spring
(at the end of the school year). The beginning and ending dates of these
vacation periods are determined by the respective boards of education and
schools. In general, educational institutions are closed on Sundays and on
national holidays.
The responsibility for financing public education is shared by the national, prefectural and municipal governments. Each government provides support for its own educational activities with funds derived from its own taxes and other income. None of the national, prefectural or municipal taxes are earmarked for specific governmental services. The decision as to the proportion of tax revenue to be allotted to educational services is at the discretion of each government.
Educational
expenditure of the national government may be classified into two categories:
expenditure for national educational establishments (universities and others)
and services; and subsidies earmarked for education which are allocated to
prefectures, municipalities, private educational establishments and other
bodies.
In
addition, the national government provides local allocation tax grants to
prefectural and municipal governments. These grants are aimed at ensuring that
every local government secures a certain level of income and public services.
The sources of these grants are defined by law as: a certain percentage (32%)
of total national revenue from the income tax, corporation tax and liquor tax;
a certain percentage (24%) of consumption tax income; and a certain percentage
(25%) of cigarette tax income. While these grants are not earmarked for any
specific services, a certain level of local government expenditure for
education is made possible under these grants.
Educational
expenditure of prefectural governments include: expenditure for prefectural
educational establishments and services; salaries and allowances for teachers
in municipal elementary, lower secondary and part-time upper secondary schools;
and subsidies to municipalities for educational purposes. Educational
expenditure of municipal governments include: expenditure for operating
municipal elementary and lower secondary schools (other than teachers’
salaries); and expenditure for operating the other municipal educational
establishments.
In
the fiscal year (FY) 1993, ending in March 1994, total public expenditure for
education accounted for 6.4% of national income and 16.6% of the net total of
national and local government expenditure. The proportion of educational
expenditure to total expenditure of the national government was 8.8%, and the
average proportion of local government expenditure devoted to education to the
total expenditure was 21.1%. The national government share of public
expenditure for education was approximately one-half.
No
tuition fees are charged for instruction in public elementary and lower
secondary schools which provide compulsory education. Tuition fees are charged
to students in public upper secondary schools and in public higher education
institutions. Tuition fees collected from students are incorporated into
revenue receipts of the government operating the institution, and are not
earmarked for educational purposes.
While
tuition fees charged in national institutions are uniformly determined by the
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, those charged in
prefectural and municipal schools are determined by individual local
authorities.
Student aid programmes are offered by a number of organizations including the Japan Scholarship Foundation, supported by the national government, prefectural and municipal governments, and non-profit corporations.
The
Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture lays down the minimum number
of school days per year for kindergartens, and the subjects to be offered in
elementary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools, as well as the
standard number of yearly school hours for each subject. The Ministry also
specifies the objectives and standard content of each subject or each area of
school activity in the course of study, which contains the national curriculum
guidelines for each of the four school levels: kindergarten, elementary school,
lower and upper secondary school.
Each
school organizes its own curriculum in accordance with the provisions of the
relevant statutes and the course of study, taking into account the actual
circumstances of the locality in which it operates, as well as the
characteristics of children enrolled and the stage of their mental and physical
development.
In
March 1989, the Ministry started the process of revision of the national course
of study for each of the four school levels. The basic objective of this
revision was “to contribute to developing citizens who are rich in heart and
are capable of coping with the changes in society.”
Pre-primary education
Kindergartens are non-compulsory schools intended to help infants develop their
minds and bodies by providing them with an appropriate educative environment.
The Course of study for kindergartens
(put into effect in 1990) sets forth specific objectives to be achieved by
children by the end of a kindergarten course with regard to their emotions,
willingness and attitudes, as well as the specific content to be taught to
achieve each objective. These objectives and corresponding content are set
forth in each of the five aspects of children’s development: health, human
relations, environment, language, and expression. All objectives and related
content are to be achieved through children’s play and other activities.
It is also specified that the standard number of daily school hours should be four and that the number of school weeks per year should be not less than thirty-nine.
Primary education
The elementary school is intended to provide children with elementary general
education suited to the relevant stages of their mental and physical
development.
In September 1992, a five-day school week began to be introduced once every month, and in April 1996 the five-day week began to be implemented twice every month. The five-day school week is intended to contribute to an overall review of the educational functions of the school, the home and the community. It is also aimed at bringing about the sound character formation of children. It is envisaged that the five-day school week will take root successfully throughout the country.
The enrollment ratio for compulsory schools in Japan has always been nearly 100%, and grade-to-grade promotion is practically automatic. In 1995, the average pupil-teacher ratio was 19.4:1.
Secondary education
The
lower secondary school aims to provide pupils aged 12-15 with general secondary
education suited to the level of their mental and physical development, based on
the education given in the elementary school.
In 1995, the total number of lower secondary schools was 11,274, with 4,570,390
students enrolled and 271,020 teachers. The average pupil-teacher ratio was
16.9:1. In the same year, 96.7% of students completing lower secondary courses
entered upper secondary schools and colleges of technology.
Upper
secondary schools may offer a number
of elective subjects at their discretion, so that the curriculum in each school
may be adapted to the aim of the courses offered in the school and to the
differing abilities, aptitudes and future prospects of individuals and so that
students may choose appropriate subjects suited to their own abilities,
aptitudes and future prospects. In 1995, 74.2% of upper secondary school students
were enrolled in general academic courses, and the rest in vocational and other
specialized courses.
The
revised course of study for upper secondary schools became effective
progressively from 1994 (specifically, it took effect in 1994 for the first
year of the upper secondary school, in 1995 for the second year, and 1996 for
the third year). The course of study specifies the subjects both in general
education and in specialized education, as well as the objectives and the
standard content of teaching in each subject. In addition, it lays down the
standard number of credits to be acquired for most of the general education
subjects.
In
1995, the total number of upper secondary schools was 5,501, with 4,724,945
students enrolled and 281,117 teachers. The average student-teacher ratio was
16.9:1. In the same year, 45.2% of the age group enrolled in upper secondary
schools entered universities and junior colleges.
Higher education in Japan is mainly provided by universities, junior colleges and colleges of technology.
Universities
are higher education institutions which, as centres of learning, conduct
teaching and in-depth research in specialized academic disciplines and provide
students with broad knowledge. Junior colleges aim to conduct teaching and
in-depth research in specialized subjects, and to develop in students abilities
required for vocational or practical life. Colleges of technology aim to
conduct in-depth teaching in specialized subjects, and to develop in students such
abilities as are required for vocational life.
Admission
to universities and junior colleges is granted on a competitive basis to those
who have completed upper secondary courses. Entrants are selected by means of
scholastic achievement tests (including the nationwide examination administered
by the National Centre for University Entrance Examinations through national, local public and private universities) and other
tests assessing students’ abilities and aptitudes. Assessments submitted by
upper secondary schools are also taken into account. Recently, however, the
number of universities admitting a certain number of students merely on the
basis of the recommendation from upper secondary school principals has been
increasing.
In
the spring of 1995, approximately 1,133,000 students applied for admission to
universities or junior colleges, and about 801,000 (66.2%) were successfully
admitted. About 203,000 (25.3%) of these entrants graduated from upper
secondary schools one or more years before. In the same year, the number of
entrants to universities and junior colleges accounted for 45.2% of the age
group.
With
regard to universities (undergraduate courses), in 1995 more than one-half of
all students were enrolled in humanities and social science courses, while
nearly one-third were in scientific courses (natural science, engineering,
agriculture, medicine, dentistry, etc.). The distribution of students by major
fields of study varies among national, local public and private institutions.
In national universities, enrollment in humanities and social science courses
accounts for only 24% of total enrollment, while the proportion of students
enrolled in these courses reaches 58% in local public universities, and about
65% in private universities.
Students
in universities, junior colleges and colleges of technology are required to
meet certain credit requirements for the completion of a specific course. The
optimum standard requirements for credits are specified in the respective
ordinances of the MONBUSHO providing for optimum national standards for the
structure, teacher staffing, content of education, physical facilities, etc.,
for the different types of higher education institutions. Content and methods
of teaching are at the discretion of individual institutions of higher
education.
The
Ministry has implemented various institutional reforms, so that universities
may cope with the needs of adults for lifelong learning. These reforms include:
(i) the introduction of a system in which non-degree students can learn a
single subject or a few subjects at university and earn regular university
credits for these subjects; (ii) the creation of a system whereby universities
are authorized to award part of their credits for the results of student
learning at a special training college; (iii) the expansion of university
courses open both in the daytime and in the evening, in order that universities
may adapt their programmes to the varied life patterns of working adults; and
(iv) the introduction of a new system of student placing, which will facilitate
the entrance or transfer of students to the second year or above of a
university course.
In
1989, the Ministry introduced the following reforms in the graduate school
system: (i) the authorization of graduate school evening courses; (ii) the
revision of the National Standards for the Establishment of Universities, so as
to authorize the establishment of universities providing a graduate school only
(i.e. “graduate universities”); (iii) the introduction of flexible provisions
which will enable students to obtain a master’s degree in one year after
completion of an undergraduate course, and which will enable students to earn a
doctoral degree in three years after completion of an undergraduate course; and
(iv) the introduction of flexible provisions regarding qualifications of
graduate school entrants, so that university students may be admitted to a
graduate school after completing the third year of an undergraduate course.
In
1991, the Ministry introduced a thorough reform of the academic degree system.
Under this reform, some consolidation was made of, and more flexibility was
given to, the categories of degrees. It was made possible for those who have
not graduated from a university to obtain a bachelor’s degree, under certain
requirements and subject to the screening by the National Institution for
Academic Degrees.
In
1995, the total number of universities was 565, with 2,546,649 students
enrolled and 137,464 teachers. The total number of junior colleges was 596,
with 498,516 students enrolled and 20,702 teachers. The total number of
colleges of technology was 62, with 56,234 students enrolled and 4,306
teachers. In addition, there were 3,476 special training schools (813,347
students enrolled and 36,433 teachers) and 2,821 miscellaneous schools (321,105
students enrolled and 16,304 teachers).
In
April 1995, approximately 335,000 students followed advanced courses offered by
special training schools. About 249,000 of these students graduated from upper
secondary schools in March of the same year. This number accounted for 15.7% of
all graduates from upper secondary schools, which was a little more than that
of entrants to junior colleges.
Philippines
Principles
and general objectives of education
In the Philippines the education system aims to:
·
Provide a broad
general education that will assist each individual in society to attain his/her
potential as a human being, and enhance the range and quality of the individual
and the group;
·
Help the individual
participate in the basic functions of society and acquire the essential
educational foundation for his/her development into a productive and versatile
citizen;
·
Train the nation’s
manpower in the middle-level skills required for national development;
·
Develop the high-level
professions that will provide leadership for the nation, advance knowledge
through research, and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human
life;
·
Respond effectively to
changing needs and conditions through a system of educational planning and
evaluation.
Current educational priorities and concerns
The growing awareness of the benefits of education,
the constitutional provision (a new constitution was adopted in 1987) for free
and compulsory elementary education, the demand for education relevance and
responsiveness to changing societal needs and the alarming rate of increase in
the country’s population have contributed to the problem of providing education
for all, a problem which becomes more serious each year. The Department of
Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) has attempted to implement educational
reforms, programmes and projects to address the key issues of access and
quality of basic education, relevance and efficiency of the education system.
However, many problems are besetting education in the Philippines. Among the
school-related causes are the unqualified and poorly trained teachers,
inadequate facilities and equipment, and lack of instructional materials
(textbooks and teacher’s manuals). Non-school factors include poverty, low
educational attainment and illiteracy of parents, and poor health and
nutrition.
In
recent years, the DECS has pursued several development programmes and projects
through government funding and overseas economic co-operation both multilateral
and bilateral. The strategies to improve education include overall review of
elementary and secondary education, universal access to and quality of
education (notably by emphasizing teaching of English, science, technology and
mathematics), provision of alternative delivery schemes (such as multigrade
teaching, mobile teaching, and instructional management by parents, community
and teachers in disaster areas), management training for principals and school administrators,
development of research, improvement of school libraries and teachers’ welfare.
Technical and vocational education was also revised in an effort to cope with
rapid technological advancements and to provide young people with more
meaningful preparation for their future employment. The strategies include
curriculum development, improvement of pre- and in-service education of
teachers in both public and private schools, updated instructional materials in
various fields, and upgrading of equipment for both public and private
institutions.
At
the higher education level, the strategies include improving access of the poor
and disadvantaged, improving quality––notably by focusing on pre-service and
in-service training of teachers––, liberalizing policies for private schools,
rationalizing state colleges and universities (SUCs), and strengthening
linkages with government professional boards for evaluation.
Among
the development programmes implemented in recent years, the following should be
mentioned:
The
Elementary and Secondary Education Project: the aim of the project has been to
meet the sector’s requirement for essential physical resources (facilities and
equipment), especially in educationally and economically disadvantaged areas;
improve the professional competence of teachers and school administrators;
expand the population’s basic knowledge and the skills of children at risk of
dropping out of school as well as illiterate out-of-school youth and adults;
and further develop DECS institutional capacities in planning and management of
the education system.
Implementing
the New Secondary Education Curriculum (1992-93): mass training of Grade IV
teachers was undertaken, and complemented with the production and delivery of
textbooks and teachers’ manuals to fully support the implementation of the new
curriculum. The physical facilities component of the programme also provided
for the construction of 673 packages of equipped and furnished academic
classrooms, workshops and science laboratories to augment the accommodations
problem in the secondary level.
Science
Teaching Improvement Project: this project aims to develop science equipment
through research, prototype production, standards setting and tests, and
expertise within the educational sector through workshops, seminars, and
training of teachers and staff locally and abroad.
Science
Equipment Project: this project addresses the pressing need of the public
school system for instructional materials and equipment. The National Science
Equipment Centre and three Regional Distribution/Service Centres were developed
and institutionalized for the purpose of developing, testing, producing, and
distributing science equipment to the public secondary schools.
Rationalizing
programme offerings of state colleges and universities on a regional basis:
this programme aims at encourage specialization in each SUC and
intra-regionally among SUCs with special emphasis on capital and land-intensive
courses such as agriculture, technology and engineering, and technical
education. It encourages regional co-ordination among SUCs to minimize
duplication of programme offerings.
Among
the achievements, benefits and performance of the education system over a
ten-year period (1986-95), the following should be mentioned:
·
Education has been given
the highest budgetary priority in the national government budget.
·
The New Elementary
School Curriculum (NESC) and the New Secondary School Curriculum (NSSC) have
been fully implemented.
·
Free public secondary
education has been implemented.
·
The programme of
assistance for low-income students and faculty in private schools has been
expanded.
·
The Education For All
plan of action (1991-2000) to provide access to basic education and eradicate
illiteracy has been adopted.
·
The Values Education
Framework has been formulated and implemented.
·
Centres of excellence in
teacher education have been established.
·
Professionalization of
the teaching profession has been achieved through the Philippine Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994.
·
The National Elementary
Achievement Test for Grade VI pupils and the National Secondary Achievement
Test for Form IV high school students have been administered.
·
Student contact time has
increased through a lengthened school calendar and additional time for English,
science and mathematics.
·
Science education has
been strengthened through the establishment of regional science high schools,
the formulation and implementation of the Science and Technology Education
Plan, the establishment of the Regional Science Teaching Centres, and the
organization of the National Science Teaching Instrumentation Centre.
·
Policies governing
private education have been liberalized––notably as regards curriculum
requirements and tuition fee policy––to promote efficiency, autonomy and responsiveness.
·
Educational performance
during the period has improved, as indicated by the literacy rate, the improved
enrollment rate at the primary and secondary levels, the decrease of repetition
rates, and the provision of textbooks and instructional materials.
The
DECS will continue to provide access to basic education. In accordance with the
broadening of accessibility to basic education, the DECS programme commitment
has the following components: (a) establishment of a school in every barangay not having an elementary school
and in every town without a high school (a barangay
is the basic governmental unit in the country’s political structure, consisting
of a number of families within the same geographic area); (b) organization of
multigrade classrooms; (c) completion of incomplete elementary schools; and (d)
provision of basic instructional materials, facilities and equipment at the
elementary and high school levels.
In
addition, the Master Plan for Basic Education (1996-2005) has the mandate of
modernizing education. The programme will be pursued through the introduction
of modern instructional materials––such as computers and Internet, videos, well
equipped science laboratories and machine shops as well as libraries––to enrich
instruction through training programmes and further studies, including staff
development abroad, teaching techniques and teachers’ mastery of subject
matter. Training programmes will also be provided for the upgrading of
managerial skills in planning, project and fund management as well as resource
management and community mobilization. Information and telecommunication
systems will serve as basic tools for carrying out educational administration
and supervision.
Structure and organization of the education system
Pre-school
education consists of nurseries and
kindergartens that cater to children aged 3-6. This level of education is not
compulsory.
Elementary education is compulsory and provides basic education to pupils aged 7-12. It
consists of six years of study except in a few schools––mainly
private––offering a seven-year course. Elementary education is organized into
two levels: primary, which covers Grades I-IV; and intermediate, which covers
Grades V and VI (or VII). After completing the six-year elementary programme,
pupils receive a certificate of graduation.
Secondary
education (high school) is a continuation of the basic education provided at the
first level. It is expanded to include learning (general education) and
training in basic employable skills (vocational/technical education). This
covers a period of four years of formal schooling and is addressed to students
aged 13-16.
Tertiary
education (higher education) provides prescribed courses of studies which are
credited towards degrees in academic disciplines or professions. It includes
two-year post-secondary technical and vocational courses, various professional
courses, and general higher education, including graduate and post-graduate
studies (for students aged 17-25). Normally, a baccalaureate degree takes four
years. Graduate and post-graduate courses normally take two to three years to
complete.
The
school year was extended to 200 working days in 1993, with the opening of
classes on the first Monday of June and the ending of classes in March.
Many
of the problems of education today are linked to the under-investment in
education. The increase in the education budget from 1986 to 1989 was not
sustained in the succeeding three-year period. After reaching a peak of 13.2%
of the national budget in 1989, the share of education declined to 11.7% in
1991. Real per capita expenditures declined starting in 1990. The growth in the
nominal size of the education budget was attributed to the growth of salary
inputs which account for about 70% of total education expenditures. The level
of spending is very much below those of other ASEAN countries. Actual
expenditure per student increased from 783 pesos
(P) in 1986 to P1,380 in 1994 at the elementary level. During the same
period, a slight decline was observed at the secondary level from P1,271 to
P1,257 per student.
However,
education has been given the highest budgetary priority in the national
government budget in recent years. Realignments within the DECS budget have
been made to augment the financial resources for elementary education. In
addition, two-thirds of the President’s Social Fund have been committed
primarily to establish new schools in barangays
without an elementary school. The share of education in the national budget
increased to 14% in 1995. The education budget (DECS and state universities and
colleges) increased from P13.13 billion in 1986 to P53.7 billion in 1995. The
average teachers’ salary increased from P1,553 per month in 1986 to P5,902
which is probably the highest rate of increase among the various professional
groups in the national government. To implement the Master Plan for Basic
Education (1996-2005), it is estimated that P50 billion will be allocated for
the modernization of basic education in the next ten years.
The
national government is authorized by the Constitution to contribute to the
financial support of educational programmes. The DECS is likewise asked to
formulate measures to broaden access to education through financial assistance
and other incentives to schools, teachers, and students. Public elementary
schools, national secondary schools, vocational and technical schools, other
special schools, and chartered and non-chartered tertiary educational
institutions are funded primarily from national funds. Local governments are
encouraged to assume the operation of non-national public schools, while the
national government provides funds and adequate sources of revenue. Government
educational institutions are allowed to receive grants, legacies, and donations
for purposes specified by existing laws. The management and use of such income
is subject to government accounting and auditing rules and regulations.
Private
schools throughout the country are funded from capital investments, equity
contributions, tuition fees and other school charges, grants, loans, subsidies
and other income sources in accordance with current legislation. The national,
regional, provincial, city and municipal governments may also aid school
programmes with loans, grants and scholarships to recognize the complementary
role of the government and of private schools in the educational system.
A
number of programmes have been funded through international finance assistance.
For instance, the Secondary and Elementary Education Project (1990-94) was
financed through a support loan from the World Bank with co-financing by the
Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund of Japan. The Philippine-Australia Technical
and Vocational Education Project aimed at improving the sub-sector was
supported by the Australian bilateral assistance. The Science Teaching
Improvement Project was jointly financed by the German government and the
Philippine government. The Science Equipment Project (1989-1992) was
implemented with the financial assistance of the German government.
Pre-primary education
Pre-school
education at the kindergarten level (age group 5-6 years) must aim to develop
children in all aspects (physical, social, emotional, and cognitive) so that
they will be better prepared to adjust and cope with life situations and the
demands of formal schooling; and to maximize the children’s potential through a
variety of carefully selected and meaningful experiences considering their
interests and capabilities. The curriculum focuses on the following areas:
·
Physical development: it
includes gross and fine motor co-ordination through play and manipulative
activities like games, simple works, etc.
·
Personal-social
development: it involves skills and social behaviours and it includes the
development of health habits, independence, abilities to follow rules and
routines. Learning about the family and other people is part of the concerns in
this area.
·
Affective development:
it includes experiences that help children develop love for God, self, others
and the community, and develop awareness of their feelings and sense of the
right and wrong.
·
Cognitive development:
it includes the development of communication skills and sensory-perceptual and
numeracy concepts and skills. Communication skills refer to competencies in
expressing ideas and feelings both in English and Filipino (oral expression and
basic readiness skills of listening, pre-reading and writing).
Sensory-perceptual and numeracy skills refer to the ability to observe,
discriminate, compare and classify, and to understand, count, read and write
numbers.
·
Creative-aesthetic
development: it includes exploration of sounds, music and rhythms, and the development
of children’s creative expression through drawing, painting, manipulative
activities.
In
order to attain and ensure the holistic development of children, a well-planned
curriculum and a well-balanced programme of activities are necessary, although
they may vary according to each pre-school’s approach. Indoor and outdoor play
are essential whatever approach the pre-school follows. The language spoken by
the child should be valued. It is necessary that such language be used
initially and until the children have attained the facility and confidence in
expressing themselves in English and Filipino.
The Pre-school Education Programme, established in 1992, aims to provide 5-year-olds in disadvantaged areas an opportunity for early peer socialization and learning activities before starting elementary education. The DECS organized a total of 1,428 classes with 40,780 pupils in the twenty provinces covered by the Social Reform Agenda (SRA). A total of 638 pre-school teachers were trained in nine selected regions. Instructional materials and supplies were distributed to classes under the DECS Programme, pre-schools run by Parent-Teacher Associations, and community-based pre-schools.
Primary education
Elementary
education provides basic education to pupils aged 7-12. The elementary course
comprises six years (in some cases, seven years), the first four years termed
primary grades and the last two years, intermediate grades.
The
overall mission of elementary education is to enable pupils to acquire a basic
preparation that will make them an enlightened, disciplined, self-reliant,
God-loving, creative, versatile and productive citizens in a national
community. The main objectives of elementary education are:
·
to provide knowledge and
develop the skills, attitudes and values essential to the children’s personal
development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and
changing social milieu
·
to provide learning
experiences aimed at increasing the children’s awareness of and responsiveness to
the demands of society, and to prepare them for constructive and effective
involvement;
·
to promote and intensify
the children’s knowledge of, identification with, and love for the nation and
the people to which they belong;
·
to promote work
experiences aimed at developing and enhancing the children’s orientation to the
world of work and creativity, and to prepare them for an honest and gainful
work.
The
school curriculum is the shortest compared to other ASEAN countries and the
learning materials are often inadequate. The five important subject areas are
science, mathematics, Filipino, English, and civics and culture. Daily class
time for Grades I and II is 320 minutes; for Grade III, 360 minutes; for Grade
IV, 380 minutes; and for Grades V and VI, 400 minutes.
In
1994/95, the gross enrollment rate in elementary schools was 112.06% and the
average teacher-pupil ratio was 1:36. The average size of a class was 40
pupils. The cohort survival rate was 66.5%. The average drop-out rate was 7.5%
(ranging from a minimum of 3.1% to a maximum of 21.5%, depending on the region
considered) and the average repetition rate was 1.8%. In 1997, the net
enrollment ratio was 95.7% and the average drop-out rate was 8.8% (DECS, 1999).
Secondary education
Elementary school graduates are admitted into
the secondary level which is a continuation of the elementary education
programme and a preparation for higher education. The secondary course consists
of four years. Curricular offerings are classified as either general or
vocational/technical secondary. Elementary and secondary education levels are
considered basic education. Secondary education is addressed to students aged
13-16.
The
New Secondary Education Curriculum was implemented in 1992/93. The major subject
areas are science, mathematics, technology, Filipino, English, and
civics/national culture. Technical and vocational education was also revised
and adapted to technological progress and employment needs in recent years.
“Vocational
and technical education […] covers five main fields, namely, trade (technology,
communication, electronics, computers, transportation, etc.), agriculture,
fisheries, home industries, and non-traditional courses. These comprise more
than 250 different courses of six months’ to three years’ duration. These
courses include formal school work in the field of specialization and related
academic subjects. In the one-, two- and three-year courses, these are combined
with supervised industrial training in a co-operating firm.” (Sutaria, cit., p. 788).
In
1994/95, the gross enrollment rate at the secondary level was 77.16% and the
average teacher-student ratio was 1:37. The average size of a class was 49
students. The cohort survival rate was 75.6%. The average drop-out rate was 9.3%
(ranging from a minimum of 5.2% to a maximum of 18.2%, depending on the region
considered) and the average repetition rate was 1.4%. The National Secondary
Achievement Test (NSAT) is a test given to students completing the secondary
level.
“As
in the elementary school, secondary school students are rated four times a
year. If a student fails in a particular subject, he or she repeats the subject
the next year, but is, nevertheless, promoted to the next higher year. A
certificate is issued to secondary school graduates. All high school graduates
seeking admission to post-secondary programmes requiring a minimum of four
years’ study are required to qualify in the National College Entrance
Examination (NCEE) administered by the National Educational Testing and
Research Centre.” (Sutaria, cit., p.
791).
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
was established by virtue of the Republic Act No. 7722 otherwise known as the
1994 Higher Education Act. The Commission is responsible for the operation of
all higher education institutions––both public and private––their policy
formulation, planning and programme recommendations. The Commission regulates
the establishment or closure of private higher education institutions, their
course offerings, curricular development, building specifications and tuition
fees.
In order to provide advisory services to
the Commission, a panel of experts in the nine major course clusters were
appointed for an initial three-year period (1995-97). The Technical Panels are
involved in areas such as development and revision of policies and standards,
setting directions for their specific programmes, and monitoring and evaluation
of programmes.
Public higher education institutions
(PHEI) are basically composed of chartered state universities and colleges
(CSUC). Other PHEIs include: colleges and schools supervised by the CHED,
community colleges, local universities/colleges and other government schools.
Private higher education institutions, both confessional and non confessional, are fee-paying and enroll about 80% of the total number of collegiate students (2.01 million in 1995/96). Confessional HEIs are usually non-profit institutions owned by religious orders, while non confessional HEIs are owned by private corporations and they are not affiliated to any religious organization.
Charted state universities and colleges are
organized according to their charters. CSUCs are authorized to award degrees or
open new courses upon approval of the Board of Regents/Trustees. Private HEIs
are organized under the corporation code. They are governed by special laws and
the general provisions contained in the corporation code. Private institutions
usually follow the regulations and orders of the CHED but they enjoy a certain
degree of autonomy when they reach Level III accreditation.
In response to the continued mismatch between
manpower supply and demand and the issue of enhancing the employability of
graduates, information dissemination on relevant and in-demand courses based an
regional/local needs has been intensified. Course offerings were rationalized
to avoid duplication or undesirable competition between and among private
tertiary schools and state universities and colleges through continuous review
and evaluation of educational programmes by the Regional Development Councils.
Tertiary institutions have modified their curricula to suit the needs of their
service areas. Alongside, the institutions strengthened their respective areas
of specialization by developing the managerial capability of professionals in
various fields through building a strong research capability in agriculture,
research, technology and environment, and natural resources development.
Higher education institutions have adopted a scheme
of voluntary accreditation to upgrade the quality of programme offerings. Other
quality assurance mechanisms have been developed to improve various programme
clusters, namely: agriculture education; humanities, social sciences and communication;
information technology; medical and health related professions; engineering,
architecture and technology; science and mathematics; teacher education;
business accountancy and industry; and maritime education. Programme offerings
include associate diploma courses, baccalaureate courses, and graduate degree
courses at the master’s and doctoral levels.
Singapore
Principles
and general objectives of education
In
general terms, the aim of the education system in Singapore is to bring out the
best in all children, provide them with knowledge and skills to earn a living,
and develop them into good citizens.
The
desired outcomes of education represent a statement of the attributes which
every Singaporean should have. For the graduates of the Institute of Technical
Education, polytechnics and universities this means:
·
being morally upright,
culturally rooted yet understanding and respecting differences, responsible to
family, community and country;
·
believing in Singapore’s
principles of multi-racialism and meritocracy, appreciating the national
constraints but seeing the opportunities;
·
being constituents of a
gracious society;
·
willing to strive,
taking pride in work;
·
being able to think,
reason and deal confidently with the future, with courage and conviction in
facing adversity;
·
being able to seek,
process and apply knowledge;
·
having an innovative
spirit seeking continual improvement, lifelong habits of learning, and an
enterprising spirit in undertakings;
·
thinking globally, but
rooted to Singapore.
Structure and organization of the education system
Although pre-school
education is not compulsory, “almost 99% of children experience one to
three years of pre-school education” (Yeoh, 1995, p. 868).
Primary education caters to children starting at age 6 and lasts six
years. It consists of a four-year foundation stage (Grades I-IV) and a two-year
orientation stage (Grades V and VI).
Pupils
are placed in secondary school courses based on their Primary
School-leaving Examination (PSLE) performance. Pupils who are within the top
10% in the PSLE can choose to go to the Special course. Other pupils are placed
in either the Express course or the Normal course. The Special and the Express
courses are four-year programmes (Grades VII-X) leading to the Singapore-Cambridge
General Certificate of Education Ordinary level (GCE O-level) examination. The
Normal course offers a four-year programme leading to the GCE N-level
examination.
Students
who complete secondary education “may either go on to junior colleges (Grades
XI and XII) or seek alternatives studies at either the polytechnics or the
vocationally oriented Institute of Technical Education.” (Yeoh, 1995, p. 866).
Junior colleges offer two years of the GCE Advanced level (A-level) studies
preparing for tertiary education. Polytechnics provide full-time courses
leading to the award of the three-year diploma or two-year certificate. The
Institute of Technical Education offers two to three years full-time
vocationally oriented courses leading to the award of the National Technical
Certificate, Grade II (NTC-2). “More able students can advance to higher level
courses whose training leads to the award of the certificate in fields such as
business studies and office skills” (ibid.).
Admission
to the two universities depends on the academic performance at the
Singapore-Cambridge GCE A-level public examination. Universities offer degrees
and post-graduate studies in a wide range of disciplines.
The
school year is divided into two semesters, each one including two terms. It
consists of forty weeks (thirty-six weeks of effective instruction).
In 1997, government recurrent expenditure on education
per student was as follows: primary level, 3,230 Singapore dollars (S$);
secondary level, S$4,845; junior colleges, S$7,715; Institute of Technical
Education, S$8,942; polytechnics, S$8,856; universities (including the National
University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University and the National
Institute of Education), S$19,926. (Singapore Department of Statistics, 1998).
Pre-primary education
Pre-school education is not compulsory and is offered by the private sector.
“Strict guidelines and supervision are provided by the Ministry of Community
Development (MCD) for the running of the childcare centres while the Ministry
of Education oversees the running of the kindergartens. In 1992, there were 345
centres and kindergartens with an enrollment of 94,318 children aged from 6
months to 6 years. […] The pre-school centres provide graded instructional
programmes generally to enhance the overall development of the pre-schoolers
and to lay a good foundation for formal education. To this end, most pre-school
centres offer a programme of daily activities which includes exposure to two
languages, pre-primary work, indoor free choice activities, outdoor play,
story/rhyme time, music and movement, and social skills activities. […] In
1993, there were over a thousand trained kindergarten teachers and three times
that number of childcare assistant teachers, teachers, and supervisors.
Corresponding to the rapid expansion of enrollment in the childcare centres,
the teachers who are trained in the National Institute of Education (NIE) are
awarded the Basic or Intermediate Certificates for teachers and the Advanced
Certificate in Early Childhood education for the supervisors” (Yeoh, 1995, p.
868).
Primary education
Primary education consists of a four-year foundation stage (Grades I-IV) and a
two-year orientation stage (Grades V and VI). The overall aim of primary
education is to give children a good grasp of English, the mother tongue and
mathematics.
At
the end of primary school, pupils should:
·
be able to distinguish
right from wrong;
·
have learnt to share and
put others first;
·
be able to build
friendships with others;
·
have a lively curiosity
about things;
·
be able to think for and
express themselves;
·
take pride in their
work;
·
have cultivated healthy
habits;
·
love Singapore.
The
foundation stage is the first stage of formal schooling. The first four years
concentrate on English, the mother tongue (Chinese, Malay or Tamil) and
mathematics. Other subjects include: civics and moral education, science,
social studies, art and crafts, music, health education and physical education.
At the two-year orientation stage, there are three main language streams
available–the EM1, EM2 and EM3 streams. An ME3 stream is also available if
there is demand for it. At the end of Grade IV, pupils are assessed on their
performance in English, the mother tongue and mathematics. Based on this
assessment, the school recommends the stream which pupils should attend in
Grade V.
In
the first four years, pupils focus their attention on the two languages and
mathematics. The learning of English in the early years includes the study of
general topics such as health education and social studies. The study of the
mother tongue includes civics and moral education. On the average, over the
four years, 33% of the curriculum time is spent on English, 27% on the mother
tongue, 20% on mathematics and the remaining 20% on the other subjects such as
art and crafts, music and physical education. Science is taught from Grade III
onwards and social studies from Grade IV onwards.
Pupils doing very well in English, the mother tongue
and mathematics are recommended for the EM1 stream offering English and the
mother tongue as first languages at a higher level (i.e. Higher Chinese, Higher
Malay or Higher Tamil, formerly known as CL1, ML1 and TL1). The majority of pupils
are recommended for the EM2 stream which teaches English as first language and
mother tongue as second language (Chinese, Malay or Tamil, formerly known as
CL2, ML2 and TL2). The principals decide if pupils need additional lessons in
English in the EM2 (E) sub-stream, or the mother tongue in the EM2 (MT)
sub-stream. If a pupil is less able to cope with languages and mathematics,
he/she will be recommended for the EM3 stream, offering English as first
language and the mother tongue at basic oral proficiency level. The teaching of
the mother tongue emphasizes oral skills, reading and listening comprehension
as well as conversation. Parents of children recommended for the EM3 stream may
opt for the ME3 stream. Schools provide ME3 classes if there is sufficient
demand for them. Pupils in the ME3 stream study the mother tongue as first
language (Higher Chinese, Higher Malay or Higher Tamil) and English at basic
level, emphasizing oral skills, reading and listening comprehension, as well as
conversation. The language of instruction for all school subjects in the ME3
stream is the mother tongue. Transfers between streams are possible at the end
of Grade V. These are decided by the principal on the basis of pupil’s
progress.
Retention is not generally practiced in Grades I-IV;
but, in exceptional cases, such as those which lead a pupil to miss school for
a good part of the year, he/she may be retained in a particular class. A pupil
in Grade V may be allowed to repeat in the following year if the principal thinks
that he/she will benefit from this retention. In particular, a pupil in Grade V
in the EM3 stream may be retained in Grade V in the EM2 stream if the principal
feels that it will help the pupil to join the EM2 stream.
The Primary School-leaving Examination (PSLE) is a
national examination which pupils sit at the end of Grade VI, no matter which
stream they are in. Its purpose is to assess pupils’ suitability for secondary
education and place them in the right secondary school course, one that matches
their learning pace, ability and inclinations.
If
a pupil is in the EM1 or EM2 stream, he/she will sit for four subjects at PSLE,
namely English, the mother tongue (Chinese, Malay or Tamil), mathematics and
science. If he/she is in the EM1 stream, he/she may also sit for an additional
paper, the mother tongue (at Higher Chinese, Higher Malay or Higher Tamil
level). If a pupil is in the EM3 stream, he/she will sit for three subjects at
PSLE, namely English, the mother tongue at basic proficiency level and mathematics.
Pupils in the ME3 stream will also sit for three subjects at PSLE, namely the
mother tongue (at Higher Chinese, Higher Malay or Higher Tamil level), basic
English and mathematics–which will be examined in the mother tongue.
All
pupils who sit the PSLE and successfully complete primary education go on to
secondary school. Depending on their PSLE results, they will go to the Special
course, Express course or Normal course at the secondary level. The Special and
Express courses lead to the GCE O-level examination in four years, whereas the
Normal course leads to the GCE N-level examination in four years, with a fifth
year leading to the GCE O-level examination. There are two course options
within the Normal course, the Normal (Technical) and the Normal (Academic)
course. The Normal (Technical) course will gear pupils towards
technical-vocational education and training in technical or commercial
institutes. There may also be appropriate courses at secondary level for pupils
from the ME3 stream, if there is sufficient demand.
Secondary and post-secondary education
Students
are placed in secondary school courses according their performance at the PSLE.
Students who are within the top 10% in the PSLE can choose to go to the Special
course. Other pupils are placed in either the Express course or the Normal
course based on their PSLE results. Generally, each school will offer two
courses, Special and Express, or Express and Normal. The latter includes both
the Normal (Academic) N(A) and the Normal (Technical) N(T) course.
At the end of secondary school, students should:
·
have moral integrity;
·
have care and concern
for others;
·
be able to work in teams
and value every contribution;
·
be enterprising and
innovative;
·
possess a broad-based foundation
for further education;
·
believe in their
ability;
·
have an appreciation for
aesthetics;
·
know and believe in
Singapore.
The
Special course is a four-year course leading to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE
O-level examination. In this course, students study English and Higher Chinese,
Higher Malay or Higher Tamil, in addition to the usual humanities, mathematics
and science subjects. In Form I (Grade VII) and Form II (Grade VIII) students
are taught a common curriculum. In Form III (Grade IX) and Form IV (Grade X),
students are offered a core curriculum which includes the two languages and a
choice of elective subjects. This course is suitable only for students who are
strong in both English and the mother tongue and have a good score in their
PSLE (within the top 10%).
Students
can move from one course to another at the lower secondary levels. Schools keep
records of students’ performance and progress to assure fair and accurate
decisions are made regarding the movement of students across courses and levels.
Transfer from a less demanding to a more demanding course and vice versa may
take place at the end of Form I and Form II, based on the performance of
students and the professional assessment of the principal and teachers.
Transfer from the N(A) to the N(T) course and vice versa may, however, take
place at the end of Form I, based on the performance of students and the
professional assessment of the principal and teachers.
In
the Special and Express course (Forms I-II) the common curriculum includes: English,
the appropriate mother tongue, mathematics, general science, literature,
history, geography, art and crafts, design and technology or home
economics–which are examination subjects. In addition, the curriculum includes
civics and moral education, music and physical education–as non-examination
subjects. Students in the top 10 % of the PSLE cohort who are good in languages
and are also very good in their other subjects, may be offered a third language
(German, French, Japanese or Malay Elective), subject to the availability of
places. In Forms III and IV, core subjects are: English, the appropriate mother
tongue, mathematics, a science subject, a humanities subject, and up to four
elective subjects that best match students’ abilities and interests. Those who
are talented in art and music may choose these subjects under the art and music
elective programmes, if they meet the selection requirements. Civics and moral
education, music and physical education continue to be taught as
non-examination subjects.
In
general, students take seven or eight subjects at the GCE O-level examination.
Those of exceptional academic ability may take a ninth subject.
Students
in Forms I and II in the N(A) course follow common curriculum including:
English, the mother tongue, mathematics, general science, literature, history,
geography, art and crafts, design and technology or home economics as
examination subjects. In addition, they are taught civics and moral education,
music and physical education, as non-examination subjects. In Forms III-V, the
curriculum includes English, the mother tongue and mathematics as core subjects
and two to four electives. These electives could be chosen from a range of
subjects in the humanities and sciences, and other practical subjects such as
food and nutrition, fashion and fabrics, design and technology, principles of
accounts and commerce. Civics and moral education, music and physical education
continue to be taught as non-examination subjects.
Students
in Forms I and II in the N(T) course follow a common curriculum including:
English, the mother tongue at the basic level, mathematics, computer
applications, science, technical studies and home economics. Social studies,
art and crafts, civics and moral education and physical education are
non-examination subjects. In Forms III-IV, the curriculum includes: English,
the mother tongue at the basic level, mathematics and computer applications as
core subjects, and up to three electives. These electives are: technical
studies (or design and technology), science, food and nutrition, fashion and
fabrics, art and crafts and elements of office administration. Civics and moral
education, music and physical education continue to be taught as
non-examination subjects.
In
general, students in both the N(A) and N(T) course take five to seven subjects
in the GCE N-level examination. As already mentioned, students who do well in
the GCE N-level examination will have the option of doing a fifth year in
school and be prepared for the GCE O-level examination.
For
a balanced education, students are required to participate in extra-curricular
activities. In general, students participate in one sports and games activity
and another activity chosen from the list of uniformed organizations, or
cultural activities such as music, dance, art and crafts and drama.
Under-achievers
can be retained or laterally transferred to a less demanding course. When
deciding on student movements, school principals and teachers exercise their professional
judgement in the best interests of their students.
Students
who are academically inclined and have the necessary GCE O-level qualifications
may apply for pre-university (post-secondary) education at the junior
colleges, centralized institutes and pre-university centres. This course of
studies leads to the GCE A-level examination. Admission to the universities
depends on performance at this examination. Students with technical and
commercial inclinations and the necessary GCE O-level grades can apply to the
polytechnics. Polytechnic graduates with good grades in their studies will have
the opportunity to pursue tertiary education at the universities. Students with
GCE O- or N-level certificates can join technical-vocational courses offered by
the Institute of Technical Education. Those who do well in these courses will
be able to proceed to the polytechnics for diploma programmes.
The
first junior college was established in 1969. In the 1970s, another six
colleges were established and in the 1980s the remaining seven were
established. Today there are fourteen junior colleges spread across the island.
In 1997 (end of June), there were 21,273 students enrolled and the total
teaching staff was 1,510.
At
the end of junior college, students should:
·
be resilient and
resolute;
·
have a sound sense of
social responsibility;
·
understand what it takes
to inspire and motivate others;
·
have an entrepreneurial
and creative spirit;
·
be able to think
independently and creatively;
·
strive for excellence;
·
have a zest for life;
·
understand what it takes
to lead Singapore.
The
junior college offers an advanced curriculum that stresses academic and mental
discipline and so prepares a student for university entry. The
Singapore-Cambridge GCE A-level examination, for which all junior college
students sit at the end of two years of study, acts as a university entrance
examination. This is an examination recognized both by local universities and
universities abroad. With a good A-level certificate, the student enters the
university immediately, or after National Service in the case of young men.
Work experience is not required.
As mentioned, non-university (post-secondary)
education is offered by fourteen junior colleges, the Institute of Technical Education
(ITE), centralized institutes, pre-university centres and four polytechnics.
The Nanyang Polytechnic (NYP), established in April
1992, offers twenty diploma programmes as well as a wide variety of advanced
diploma and specialist courses designed for professionals. In 1996/97, it had
an enrollment of over 7,700 full-time students in its four schools.
The Ngee Ann Polytechnic, the Singapore Polytechnic
and the Temasek Polytechnic offer a wide range of full-time and part-time
courses at the certificate, diploma and advanced diploma levels. In 1996/97,
the total full-time enrollment was 14,480, 19,787 and 7,463, respectively.
University education is provided by two
universities. The Nanyang Technological University (NTU), through its six schools,
offers undergraduate courses in accountancy, business, communication studies,
engineering and applied science. It also offers post-graduate programmes
leading to the degrees of Master, Doctor of Philosophy and post-graduate
diplomas. The National Institute of Education (NIE) is part of NTU and provides
professional training for teachers, as well as the study of science, physical
education, the humanities and fine arts in its four schools. The NIE offers
courses leading to either a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science degree
with a Diploma in Education/Physical Education. It also offers a post-graduate
diploma in education programme for university graduates, and a two-year diploma
in education/physical education programme for holders of GCE A-level
qualifications.
The
National University of Singapore (NUS) has eight faculties (architecture and
building, arts and social sciences, business administration, dentistry,
engineering, law, medicine and science) comprising more than fifty teaching
departments. In addition to undergraduate courses, NUS faculties and four
post-graduate schools offer courses and research work at the post-graduate
level. The University also hosts several national research institutes and
centres in the fields of engineering, medicine, science and information
technology. In 1996/97, the undergraduate enrollment was 17,960, while a total
of 4,318 students were pursuing post-graduate studies in the various
disciplines. In the same year, the University had more than 2,700 teaching and
research staff.
The SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (RELC) is an educational project of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO). Its members are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and New Zealand are associate members. The centre conducts advanced courses in language teaching, undertakes and promotes research, disseminates information, and provides library and information services. The regular post-graduate courses lead to the Diploma in Applied Linguistics or the Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics. Shorter courses lead to the Certificate in Applied Linguistics, the Teaching of English for Business and Technology and specialized areas.